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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



^, ... UAT34- 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS 



i! 




A Report to the New York State Department 
of Public Instruction 



'i^t 



IK 



-BT- 



JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS, JR., 



LATE D. S. CONSUL AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (AACHEN) 




vRV Or COWgT ^ 

'91 • 



SYRACUSE, N. T. : 

C. W BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 

1891 



Copyright, 1891, by C. W. BaRDEEN 



vN-^- 






PBEFACE 

This brief account of the Prussian elementary scliool sj'stem was 
prepared at tlie request of the Honorable Andrew S. Draper, Super- 
intendent of Public Instruction for the State of New York, and 
appears in his thirty -seventh annual rcjwrt, transmitted to the Legis- 
lature January C, 1891. 

Tlie following extract from Sujierintendcnt Draper's report 
exjDlains itself : — 

lu 18GT. Supuiiiitenik-nt Victor JI. Uicu presented to tbe Legislature a sptcial 
and elaborate report, attempting to set forth tlie educational conditions of uU llie 
enliglilencd nations of the world. The little volume was published by the t^tale, 
but the edition was so limited that it is now almost unknown. It enubled the 
educators of the State to compare their own wuh other educational systems, 
and it was likewise prolific of suggestions. Its value, however, was impaired 
by reason of the fact that the information it contained was deiived from the 
reports of foreign educational or other oflicers. or from encyclopxdias. To make 
them of the greatest value to us, foreign school systems must be seen through 
Ameiiean eyes, and must be described by an intelligent friend of our school sys- 
tem, who is so an.\ious for its improvement that he is willing to seize upon any- 
thing which will improve it, no matter where he may find it, and who yet has the 
power of discriminating sufficiently to enable him to see not only what is good, 
but to determine what is practicable and advisable in this countiy. 

I have been desirous of presenting to the educators of this Stale something of 
this character covering the educational work of the leading nations of Europe, 
and of presenting it in such form as to make it available to all olKcers antl teach- 
ers in the State. When, therefore, j\Ir. James liussell Paisons. Jr., of lloosick 
Falls, the accom])lished school commissioner of the first commissioner district of 
Rensselaer county from 1S8."( to 1{^88, was made United Stales t'onsul at Ai.\-la- 
Chapelle. Germany, it occurred to me that the oppoilunily was offered for mak- 
ing an excellent beginning in this direction. The Pru.ssian elementary .school .sys- 
tem is the oldest, and admitted to be. in many regards, the best in the world. The 
man who could investigate and descrilje it more completely than most men in our 
State was going there to live for a considerable lime, and to live under ciicum- 
stances which would give him special facilities and opportunities for informalion. 
He readily acquiesced in my desiie that he should undertake the work, and has 
presented me with a more comprehensive and detailed description of the plan of 
organization and the operations of the Prussian school .system, in more compact 
form than any other which is available to American readeis. It is herewith trans- 
mitted to the Legislature, to the end that it may appear in the annual report and 
reach all interested in the educational progress of the Stale, and in the confident 
belief that it will enaljle us to see more clearly the strong points and discern the 
weak points of our own system. If this unilertaking shall seem to be pleasing 
and helpful, 1 hope to follow it next year wilh simihir descriptions covering the 
public educational systems of England and France. 

I tnay add that it seems to mo altogether the cleai'cst statement 
that has ever appeared in English of just what the Prussian schools 
are doing. 

SiRACUSE, March 9, 1891. C. W. BARDEEN. 



CONTENTS 



PaoeS 

Introduction 1 

First Chapter. 

Scope of Eeport 1-2 

Maintenance of Elementary Schools, the State's first duty 2 

Inferiorities of the New York Elementary School System 2-3 

Superiorities of the Prussian Elementary School System 3-5 

QiialiCcations of Sch.ool Commissioners{A'n'isschiiIiii.''jjfktoyeii) 5-0 

Other Supervising Officers G 

Recommendation for New York C-7 

Compulsory Education Laws 7-8 

State Suj^ervision of Private Schools 8 

Uniform Courses of Study 8-0 

The best results often obtained in Ungraded Schools 9 

Expedient adopted to prevent a too frequent cliange of teachers 

upon promotions in Graded Schools 9 

Length of Scliool Terms and Vacations 9-10 

Eecommendation for New York — The Township System 10 

Prussian Elementary Schools are free 10-11 

Teachers' Wages 1 1-12 

Total Cost of Public Education in Prussia 12-13 

Secomd Chapter. 

The German Script 13-15 

Orthograjihy 15 

Dialects 15 

Language used in teaching. Number of Children of school age 
in whose families only some language other than German 

is spoken 15-lG 

Other Language Work 10-17 

Arithmetic 17 

Geography 17 

History 17 

Natural History 17 

jMusic 17-18 

Physical Training 18 

Industrial Training for Girls 18 

Drawing 18-19 

Training of Children in tlie love of the Fatherland 19 

(V) 



Text-Books lO-SJO 

Apparatus used in teaching 20 

Teachers' Libraries 20 

Interest of the General Public in School Work 20 

TlIIUD CnAPTER. 

Religious Instruction. Brief Summary of j^rincipal decrees re- 
lating thereto 21-22 

Division of Children of School Age in the Public Elementary 

Schools, according to Religious Faith, upon May 20, 1886. 22 
Fourth Chaptek. 

School-houses and Sites 23-26 

Observations 26-27 

Fifth Chapter. 
Institutions for Children under School Age. Krippen-Kindcr- 

hewahranstaUen-Kleinlcinderiicliulen-Kinderrjurten 27-28 

Institutions for Children of School Age and older. Gymnasieii, 
Mif/elschulen—A^yla for Orphans,the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, 

Insane — Reform Schools — Elementary Schools proper 28-31 

Sixth Chapter. 

The normal divisions of Prussian Elementary Schools 31-32 

Course of Study and Time-tables for Ungraded Scliools 32-37 

The Half-day School {Halbtagsi^chule) 38 

Course of Study for Schools with Two Departments 38-43 

The School with Three Classes and Two Teachers 43-45 

The School with Three Classes and Three Teachers 45 

The School with Four Departments 45-46 

The School with Five Departments 40 

The School with Six Classes 47-48 

Table showing the Relative Distribution of Prussian Elemen- 
tary Public Schools in 1886 48-49 

Seventh Chaper. 
Schools preparatory to the Normal, for JIales {Prdparanden- 

anstalten) 49-50 

Course of Study 50-52 

Eighth Chapter. 

Normal Schools for Male Teachers 52-57 

Syllabus of Work 57-60 

NixTH Chapter. 

First Teachers' Examination for Temporary License 60-62 

Second and final Teachers' Examination 62-63 

Tenth Chapter. 
Normal Schools for Females 63-64 



Til 

Eleventh Chapter. p^gjs 

Examination of Female Teachers 64-66 

Twelfth Chapter. 
Special Certificates 66-67 

Thirteenth Chapter. 

Scliool Commissioners (Krvixsrliidinspckioreit) 67-73 

Superrisiou of Scliools in January, 1S89 73-74 

Fourteenth Chapter. 
Teachers' Conferences 74-75 

Fifteenth Chapter. 

School Discipline and Miscellaneous Regulations 75-78 

Observations 78 

Sixteenth Chapter. 
Appointment of Teacher's- Vacancy occasioned by the death of 

Teacher 78 

Vacancies arising from other Causes 78-79 

The filling of vacancies through duly authorized Teachers 7'J-80 

The filling of vacancies temporarily through Candidates 80 

Substitutes during vacations and leaves of absence 80 

Seventeenth Chapter. 

Leaves of Absence of Teachers 80-81 

Conclusion 81-82 



PRUSSIAN ELKMBNTAKY SCHOOLS. 



..AUe Kiurler. reiebe uud arme. vnriiebme uiul geringe, Kuaben umi Milloben. miissen 
iu Sebuleu uuterricbtet. in alien Kindern muss Gottes Ebenbild wieder bergestellt, 
jedes rauss furseioen kilaftigen Boruf befabigt worden." 

Drs. Sebneider aud Petersilie. 

INTEODUCTION. 

Since ISIG, Prussian commou schools have been the best iu the 
workl. Though much has been done to unify the systems in other 
parts of the Empire, nevertheless Prussian schools must not be con- 
founded to-day with other German schools. 

Prussia has no code of ijublic instruction. This fact makes it rather 
difficult to secure reliable general information. The material for this 
report was gleaned from many sources. The principal references are 
to the editions (1882-1884-1887) of Giebe's "Verordmingen betrcffend 
das getiammfe Voltsschulwesen in I'reiissen ;" "Preussviche iStalidik 101," 
Berkn, IS'SO; the school laws of 1885, 1887, 1888 and 1889 and various 
Prussian school journals and officisil statistics. 

Several German states have general school laws. For some years 
Prussia has been considering the advisability of a general school 
code. At present, with the excejition of a few general laws, the 
schools are regulated by governmental decrees, many of which are 
purely local and apt to prove misleading to the foreigner. 

I feel it my duty to express gratitude for kindneiises extended to 
me by Prussian f^joverument officials, school officers and teachers. I 
am indebted particularly to Kreisschuliuspektor Dr. Keller and Ober- 
lehrer Dr. Krick of Aix-la-Ghapelle, also Seminarlehi er Franz Hinseu 
of Linnieh. 

Prussia is divided into fourteen provinces, viz. : East Prussia, West 
Prussia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Poseu, Silesia, Saxony, Schleswig- 
Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, Hessen-Nassau, Rhine, Berlin, Hohen- 
zollern. 

Each province is subdivided into government departments {Begier- 
ungs-BeziH-e), thirty-six in number for the whole kingdom. 

The Begierungs-Bezirke are again divided into circles, called Ereise. 
Finally the Kreise are subdivided into districts. 

Each Begierunga-Bezirke has a Regency (Begierung), presided over 
by the Begierungx-Prasident , and each province has its Oherprasident 
(head-president). 

All the gradalioHH of public inMrudion are adapted to this scale of 
administrators. 

FIRST CHAPTER. 

I. Scope of PiEroRT. 
The aim of the following re))ort is to give, in a condensed form, 
from the standpoint of a New Yorker, the organization, classifieatiou 
and work accomplished in Prussian elementary schools properly so 



2 

called. Othei" schools in wbicla elementary work is done, such as the 
middle schools {Mittehchulen), are not touched upon except generally 
and as it becomes necessary in stating the qualifications of teachers 
and school commissioners. 

The reader follows the would-be elementary school teacher through the ele- 
mentary school, the school preparatory to the normal, the normal school and 
the final examinations. 

An attempt is made to stale clearly and concisely the minimum of toork 
required of each Prussian child* and the provisions by ivhich the accomplish- 
ment of this ivork is secured.'f 

II. Maintenance of Elementary Schools the State's First Duty. 

In Prussia the support of the elementary schools is considered the 
first and most important duty of the State. Even in time of war 
these schools must not be closed. The teachers who have passed the 
final examination and received definite appointments are sure of their 
pay, even though the schools to which they are appointed cease to exist. 
Teachers in elementary schools are on the same footing with clergy- 
men as regards freedom from the payment of taxes; they have but 
six weeks' instead of three years' military service, and for this time 
their wages as teachers and those of their substitutes as well must be 
paid. They are also freed from the duty of quartering soldiers in 
time of war. Finally, at the close of their active service, they draw 
pensions from the government. 

III. Inferiorities of the New York Elementary School System. 

When Prussia was defeated by the armies of the great Napoleon, 
she turned her attention toward the perfection of her system of edu- 
cation. At the close of the Franco-Prussian war, France followed 
the same course, which resulted in the adoption of the essential 
features of the elementary school sj'stem of Prussia. 

The New Yorker, anxious for a high degree of perfection in the 
elementary schools of his State, must be struck forcibly by the follow- 
ing merits of the Elementary School System of Prussia. Furthermore, 
if sufficiently interested to push his investigations farther, he can test 
in France, under a republican form of government, the operations of 
laws assuring similar advantages: 

1. Compulsory education laws, necessitatimj a full and regular attendance 
of the children of school age. 

2. Official courses of study fixing the work to be accomplished in each of 
the different grades of schools. Uniformity is thus secured in the work 
done in all schools of the same class. 

*The only exceptions, excluding tiiose unfit for any intellectual trainine. are children 
mentally, morally or physically incompetent. The education of these children is cared 
for in special schools for dullards, reform schools and institutions for the deaf, dumb 
and blind. The stupid are brought as far as possible in the elementary school course, 
generally in regular schools, sometimes in speci.il schools for dullards. 

f " The Prussian law. which fixes a iniiiimuni of instruction for the elementary schools, 
likewise fixes a miniinnin of instruction for the middle schools {MtlleUrlnilen): and there 
are two kinds of examination, extremely distinct, for obtaining the brevet of primary 
teacher for these two gradations. Thf elementarii inatfuct inn viiist hf imiforvi and 
im'ariahlf, fin- the priniari/ sr7i(jo/.s reprfficnt the body of tite nation, and are deatined to 
nourish and to Mi-enijtlii-n tlie national units/. This is not the case with the burgher. schools, 
for these are designed tor a class among whom a great many shades and diversities 
exist — the middle class. In Prussia these middle schools have, accordingly, ver> 
dillerent gcadations from the minimum fixed by the law." (Cousin.) 



3. DefiiiUe i/uaiiJicationK and e.rperience in liwhin;; for (•lii/ibtlifi/ to llie 
office of svhoul comminsioner. 

4. Provisions eleml'ing teaching to the dignity of a profession and malciitg 
the tenure of office secure. 

5. Trained teachers in rural as well as citi/ districts and a school year of 
at least forty weeks. 

6. General supervision of instructwn for children of school age in private 
schools and families, inclitdi.nt/ the qualif cations of instructors. 

New York elemental'}' schuols will never comijare favorably with 
those of Prussia without similar provisions. Until these provisions 
are secured, advanced schools are of sccoudarj' importance. The first 
duty of the State is to provide suitably for a good elementary school 
education. 

As stated by M. Victor CousIq in 1833, primary instruction is too 
far advanced in Prussia to render it necessaiy to make very frequent 
reports on the subject. 

Cousin reviewed carefully the state of primary instruction in Prussia 
in the year 1831, under the firm conviction that the experience of 
Germany, and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon the 
French people. 

"National rivalries or anlij>athies," miid he, " would here be comjdctely 
out of place. The true greatness of a people does not consi.'it in borrowing 
nothinq frrrin others, but in horroicing from all whatever is good, and in 
■perfecting whatever it appropriate.-^. I am as great an enemy as any one to 
artificial imitations; but it is mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for no 
other reason than that it has been thougld good by others. With the prompti- 
tude and justness of the French understanding, and the indestructible unity 
of our national character, we may assimilate all that is good in other counti-ies 
without fear of ceasing to he ourselves. * * t There are branches of 
the public service which must be secured against all casualties by the State, 
and in the first rank of these is primary in.4ruction." 

The suggestions of M. Cousin were followed in the main, though, 
it must be granted, after a long delaj-. In New York, once convinced 
of the necessity of reforms, we move with incredible celerity. It is 
interesting to note that the report of Cousin, published in 1833, 
emphasizes what are to-day the main defects of our system of primary 
instruction. 

IV. Superiorities of the Prussian Elementary School System. 

A careful observer of the work d^ne in Prussian elementary schools 
will detect, naturally enough, many impeifections, and _yet he will 
return to this country with the feeling that Prussia is far in the lead 
of us. Take as an example a wealthy school district in New York 
State where parents are alive to the advantages of a good education. 
Suppose, as is often the case with us, that teachers and supervising 
officers are thorouT-hlv competent, that the length of the school 
year approximates that of the Prussian school year, and that the 
attendance of the children is regular. The work done in these 
schools is fully equal to that done in the best Prussian elementary 
schools. Unfortunately, however, up to the present time, such 
schools have been exceptions here and not the rule as in Prussia. 



Our ehildreu learn as easily as the Prussian children, but under exist- 
ing laws the pupils of the average New York school district, between 
the ages of 6 and 14, can not compete with the children of the average 
school district in Prussia. It is in vain that New York State goes 
on spending more and more each year for educational purposes. 
Without legislation insuring a full and regular attendance of the 
children of school age; without definite uniform qualifications for 
supervising officers as well as teachers; without an approximate equal- 
ization of local taxation for school purposes; without State supervision 
of instruction given in private schools and families, we shall never 
attain anything approaching uniformity in the work done in our 
elementary schools. 

It is very unjust to make the sweeping assertion that no good ele- 
mentary school work is done in New York State. I have visited many 
schools in countries of the old world as well as in New York, and have 
never seen better elementary schools anywhere in the world than the 
best schools here at home. Every Prussian child between the ages of 
6 and 14* must, excejit in cases of severe illness or other extraordinary 
cause, be present at every session of the school he attends. The lists 
of the children of school age, in charge of the local jjolice (in rural 
districts the Burgermeister), are kept so carefully that it is impossible 
to escape the provisions of the compulsory education laws, as much 
so as it is to evade the military service. Dispensations amounting to 
more than four weeks in the school year are never given to children 
under 12 years of age, and to them only when sickness in the family 
or other unusual cause make it advisable.f Even then such children 
must prove the attainment of a sufficient degree of proficiency in the 
work laid down by law for elementary schools. Examinations are 
held regularly to determine the pupils' ripeness in such work, and 
they may be forced to attend school beyond the close of the fourteenth 
year of age, when, through previous irregular attendance or lack of 
diligence, the results of the examination are not satisfactory. Pupils 
leaving elementary schools, before the close of the fourteenth year of 
age, to attend a higher school, must submit to the school commissioner 
a certificate from the director of such higher school. Again, should the 
pupil leave such higher school before having attained the age of 14, 
the director must notify the school commissioner a tecond time. In 
every province there are houses of correction for children of school 
age who can not be otherwise controlled. The school commissioner and 
Landrath decide as to the sending of children to these institutions. 
Unless the parents are very poor, they are forced to pay the costs. 
In 1885 there were 180 of these houses of correction {Retlungahauser) 
in Prussia, 141 of which were established since 1848.J 

*Althoueh the school aee in some parts of the kingdom legally begins when children 
have attained the age of 6, yet, as ii matter of tact, compulsory education laws are 
everywhere first enforced at the end of the sixth year of age and, except in certain 
districts, continue in force eight years. 

" Thatsiichlich wird uberall das vollendete 6. Lebensjahr als Beginn der Sehulpfliidit 
behandelt. mit der Massgabe, dass in eiuigen KeBierungsbezirken zu Osteru jcden 
Jahres auch solche Kinder aufgenommou wercleu, welche das 6, Lebensjahr er^t bis 

zum 1. Juli. bez. 1. Oktohor desselben .laliros vollenden Die Schulpllichtig- 

keit besteht im Grossen und Gauzen furjedes vollsinnigeKindin Preussen thatsiiehlich 
rund acht Jahre." (Drs. Schneider and I'etersilie. ) 

t Children under 12 years of age are forbidden to work in factories or mines. Those 
b(itweeu 12 ami \i are restricted l>y law to six hours a day. 

t Between October 1. 1878 and March 31. 1886, 11,101 children were sent to these houses 
of correction (" Stalistisches Haiulhiwh f'dr den Freussisclien Htaat," Berlin. 1888). 



Would it not be very difficult to find many children of New York 
State who, between the ages of G and 14, had not absented themselves 
for long jDeriods from school'? With us most trivial excuses are 
accepted, and the time lost in these eight years is considerable. It is 
no wonder, then, that the Prussian children of i;i and 14 are, in gen- 
eral, far in advance of our children of the same age. In our cities and 
villages, however, where the school year apj^roximates m length that 
which the Pruhsian decrees fix definitely for their elementary schools, 
I contend that the children are not as far behind as we should exi)ect 
them to be, when we consider their irregularity in attendance. 

V. Qualifications of School Commissioners. 

Within the past few years, much has been done to call the attention 
of the peojjle to the essential defects in our school system. There has 
been a great improvement all along the line, and yet, with one excep- 
tion, that of uniform qualifications and examinations for teachers' 
certificates, the most imjjortant defects are still to be remedied. 

The teachers in our public schools must now attain a certain stand- 
ard, and yet, contrary to the precedents established by other countries 
and contrary to reason, the officers who supervise the work of these 
teachers, the school commissioners, have but one qualification, as the 
xme qua non, that is, ability to secure a plurality of the votes cast at 
a popular election. There are many thoroughly efficient school com- 
missioners in the State. Under existing laws, however, these cases 
may be considered as accidents. The inefficient officers worry the 
teachers whose educational qualifications are far superior to their 
own; add an immense amount of unnecessary work to the Dejjartment 
of Public Instruction; and make our school system a laughing-stock to 
other countries where such inconsistencies are unknown. 

In order to understand the qualifications retpiired of school com- 
missioners {Kreisscliuhn^tpeHoren) in Prussia, let us review briefly the 
requirements of male teachers. 1. Elementary xvhook. It may be 
stated at the outset that almost all the male elementary school teachers 
are normal school graduates. To insure similarity in training and a 
thorough knowledge of character, few foreigners and few beside 
normal school {Schulleltrer-Seminar) graduates are admitted to the 
male teaching force. From G to 14 the would-be teacher has attenf^ed, 
let us suppose, an elementary school. He must then absolve the three 
years' course laid down for the preparatory schools {Prdparanden- 
Andalten). These preparatory schools (Praparanden-Anslalten) are 
special institutions which tit for the normal (SdiuUehrer-Seminar). 
He is now read}' for the normal school. At the close of a three years' 
course at the normal school he is admitted to the first teachers' exami- 
nation. If successful, he must next practice as candidate or assistant 
teacher not less than two years and not more than five years before 
his admission to the final test (Ziveite Prufung). It is a most excellent 
idea to defer this final test until the applicant has been tried in the 
school-room. In this way only can decision be reached as to teaching 
capacity, discipline, etc. If teacher fails to pass the examination 
within five years, he is dropped. 2. 3Iiddle nvJwok. For teachers of 
lower classes the same requirements with the addition of ability to 
teach a foreign tongue, or natural history in its broadest sense, and 



6 

the attainment of the mark " good " in all subjects at the final exami- 
nation (Zweite Prilfung). For higher classes, a special examination 
jjrovided for middle school teachers {Prilfung der Lehrer an Millel- 
xchulen). There is really no gradation between elementary and middle 
schools. The latter merely go ou somewhat further with elementary 
school work, introducing French, Latin and English. 3. High Hchooh 
{Realxciiulen, Bealgymtmsien, Frogymnasien and Gymnasien). All high 
school teachers, except those engaged in technical departments, must 
first absolve the nine years' gymnasial course, which commences at 
the close of the third school year. Next comes the university course 
of three or fcur years. The candidate is now ready for the State 
examination. The subjects for this State examination {Slaatxprufung) 
are divided into four classes: 1. The ancient languages and German; 
2. Matliematics and natural sciences; 3. History and geography; 4. 
Religion and Hebrew. At the close of one years' ^jractice to test 
teaching capacity, he receives a second certificate and is thei'eupon 
engaged provisionally. On account of strength of competition he is 
often forced to wait as many as six years before receiving a permanent 
position. The advancement to the position of head master (Oherlehrer) 
follows generally in Prussia, after the twelfth year of service, always 
providing that the teacher has done well in the State examination and 
baa also been successful in teaching. 4. Normal t^choul fcadiers and 
directors; directors of schools preparatory for the normal; directors 
of middle schools aud higher schools for girls {Tochlerxchiden) must 
pass a sjjecial examination provided for those who are to hold such 
l^ositions {Prilfung der Recioren). 

The school commissioners {Kreisschulinifpelioren) are either former 
regular high school teachers, generally doctors of philosophy, or 
more rarely theologians, or former normal school teachers. All must 
have had practical experience in teaching. It is not regulated by 
law how long they must have taught, but to insure efiiciency, before 
permanent appointment as school commissioner, they are engaged 
provisionally for six months or longer. As with us, school commis- 
sioner districts vary greatly in size and in number of schools. 

VI. Other Supervising Officers. 
In addition to the school commissioners {Kreisschidinnpektorea), 
there are (2) local school insjjectors, generally the clergyman or 
mayor; (3J boards of education, consisting of the local school inspector, 
local officials and from two to four citizens; there is no salary attached 
to these offices; and (4) the government school councilors {Regierungs- 
rdlhe iind Schidrdtlie); and (5) Landrathe. The Ki-eisschulinsjxHor cor- 
responds to our school commissioner. The other officers maj' be 
compared with our (2) and (3) school trustees and boards of education, 
(4) State deijartment members (5) suj)ervisors.* 

VII. Recommendation for New York. 
The uniform 'examinations for teachers' certificates are now defi- 
nitely established in New York. No p)erson should be eligible to 
the office of school commissioner who does not hold a teacher's license 

* Prusfitm schools e.xeepting Forthil<ln)ig^!'<'li>iIi'» (for young workmen andappren- 
ticos). whieb are under the jurisdiction of the minister of commerce, are controlled by 
the minister of education at Berlin through the provincial school consistories IProvin- 
zinlscliulrollegien), provincial and district governments. 



of the first grade or its equivalent, aud who has not, in addition, prac- 
tical experience as a teacher. In this way, we should establish at 
least a minwuim of qualifications for this important office. 

VIII. Compulsory Education Laws. 

The uecessitj' for effective compulsory education laws has been 
thoroughly canvassed in this State. We understand fully the legal 
provisions made by other countries in this respect. New York is 
most generous towards her public schools. Everj' year the exjienses 
of these schools are increasing. From $.5,73.5,460.24: in 1865, the grand 
total for lfS89 was .|lG,6i)l, 178.24, a sum nearly equal to one-sixth the 
total annual cost of the maintenance of the immense standing army of 
the German Empire or to one-third the annual cost of public education 
in Prussia. We are, as a people, most generous, and yet we are 
always anxious to get the worth of our money. Our public schools 
are for the people. Here, if anywhere, under a govei-nment by the 
people and for the people, an elementary school education is a matter 
of necessity. All the children between fixed ages should be forced 
to improve the educational advantages the state offers. In this way 
oL'ly can we make good and intelligent citizens of the rising generation. 

Compulsory education laws are most effective in Prussia, as will be 
seen from the fact that for some years, the average number of recruits 
to the army, without elementary school training, has not exceeded 
two per cent, and in many parts of the kingdom has been less than 
two-tenths of one per cent. The most favorable statistics come from 
Hohenzollern, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Berlin, Westphalia and 
Saxony; the most unfavorable from the eastern borders. 

The following published by the Prussian bureau of statistics in 
1880, are the latest available figures based upon the census of 1885 
(Dec. 1).* 

(1) Number of children between 5 and 6 years of age. . . . 67'J,2(i7 

(2) Number of children between 6 aud 14 years of age. . 5,225,891 



5,905,1.58 



All those under (2) and a portion of those under (l)were subject to 

the compulsory education laws. 

The number attending public elementary schools 4,838,247 

The number attending public middle schools, private 

schools, etc 299,280 

The number excused from attendance under legal pro- 
visions ■ 170 , 439 

The number excused by reason of mental and physical 

infirmities .' 13, .519 

The number excused through lack of school accommoda- 
tions 8 , 826 

The number of cases of truancy reported 3,145 



5,333,456 



'The offloial statistics contained in" I'mixsifrlieSlatixtik loi," Berlin, 1H89, follow those 
published in 1878 and 18.H2. They give a complete picture of the element.-iry tdiools 
upon May 2u, iwo. More than two years were expended in the compilation aud tabula- 
tion of these statistics. Complete statistics of 1890 will not be published in all proba- 
bility before WM. 



Including the 670,267 between 5 and 6 there remain 571,702 to 
be accounted for. But only a small proportion of these children were 
subject to the compulsory education laws, and furthermore, many 
between 12 and 14 were freed from the operation of these laws. It 
is clear that only a very small and inconsiderable fraction escape. 
Oaly 3,145 cases of evasion were reported and 8,826 where pupils were 
unable to gain admission directly through lack of school accommoda- 
tions, a number less than in the city of New York alone. 

IX. State Supervision of Private Schools. 

As regards State supervision of private schools in the matter of 
qualifications of teachers and courses of study in the common school 
branches for pupils of school age, comparatively little has been said 
or written in this State. This discussion, however, will surel.y follow 
the enforcement of compulsory education laws. Before going abroad, 
I had often thought of this question in reflecting upon some of our 
inefficient private schools. High tuition bills are far from indicating 
a high grade of instruction. Fortunately, most of our private schools 
are very good. The patrons of all these schools and all interested 
therein should be willing to advocate that the teachers in private 
schools throughout the State possess at least the qualifications of 
teachers in public schools. This is the provision made abroad, and 
I have learned to appreciate its value. 

Under compulsory education laws, the State fixes a minirmim of 
work to be accomplished and a given time in which it is to be done. 
It then becomes the duty of the State to overlook all institutions where 
this elementary instruction is imparted. Private schools should be 
tested by the State to see if this minimum be attained. In all matters 
of opinion or in all work which is not laid down by the State, these 
schools should enjoy perfect freedom. If, however, New York is 
opposed to State supervision of private schools, uniformity in ele- 
mentary school work may be secured by fixing the qualifications of 
private school teachers and compelling pupils to pass annual exami- 
nations in the work laid down by the State. Instruction given in 
families could be regulated in the same way. Compulsory education, 
to be efficient, necessitates a high degree of carefulness. There should 
be no loop-holes and nothing should be left to chance, if we desire 
uniformity in our elementary school work.* 

X. Uniform Courses of Studt. 
The work to be accomplished in each Prussian elementary school is 
definitelj' laid down by law. Each school is not a law unto itself as 
to what shall be done and when and how this is to be done. I have 



* " Whoever wishes to set up a private school must be subject to only two conditions, 
from which no school, public or private, can on any pretext be exempt — the brevet of 
capacity, eiven by the commission of examination, and the supervision of the com- 
mittee of the commnne and of the inspector of the department." (Cousin.) 

Private elementary schools in Pru.ssia are decreasing in number as the following table 
shows: 

City schools. Rural schools. 

1871. 1886. 1871. 1886. 

Number of schools 1 .382 894 486 315 

Number of classes 3,744 3.266 737 617 

Number of pupils 93.720 68,698 13,401 8,438 

In 1886, there were also OCl private middle schools with 68,373 pupils. 



learned by practical experience that the work in ungraded schools 
comi^ares most favorably with that of graded schools. The courses 
of study vary little except as regards division of time and classes. 
The reader will note this by a comparison of the courses of study for 
ungraded schools and schools with two departments. Indeed, inas- 
much as the courses of study of schools with more classes would have 
involved a repetition of the same work, I have given only the division 
of time and general regulations for these schools. 

XI. The Best Results often Obtained in Ungraded Schools. 
UiJon first visiting Prussian elementary schools, I heard the state- 
ment from school commissioners that the most thorough and systematic 
work is often done in ungraded schools. Whatever the standard of 
literary qualifications may be, some teachers will lack teaching capacity, 
and though Prussia is very careful in practical tests of teaching 
capacity, nevertheless even there some incomijetency will creep in. A 
good teadher in an ungraded school, after having had the same chil- 
dren eight years, will often do better work than that done in graded 
schools where children change teachers upon jJromotion to another 
department. In this State, however, it would be very difficult to find 
many ungraded schools taught by the same teacher for the period of 
eight years. 

XII. Expedient Adopted to Prevent a Too Frequent Change of Te-^chees 
upon Promotions in Graded Schools. 

Teachers are often promoted with their classes, so that they instruct 
the same class three or four years. In exceptional cases, where teachers 
are incompetent, this plan works great injustice. Generally speaking, 
it is advantageous both for pupils and teachers. 

XIII. Length of School Terms and Vacations. 
An examination of the decrees regulating the length of vacations in 
different government districts shows a difference of from one to three 
weeks in the time elementary schools remain in session annually. 
Forty-two weeks is the minimum, forty-five weeks the maximum. The 
hours of instruction jser week vary in primary and advanced divisions 
from twentj' to thirty-two, as will be seen by reference to courses of 
study.* In the government districts of Magdeburg and Hanover, the 
elementary schools are open at least forty-three weeks annually. 
Patriotic festivals, viz., the Emperor's birthday and the anniversary 
of Sedan, and general religious festivals not occurring in regular vaca- 
tions are included. Patriotic festivals are celebrated by approjjriate 
exercises in the schools. In Jewish schools, the vacations are arranged 
to include the Jewish festivals.f The length of the school year for 
Romanists, Protestants and Jews is substantially the same. Instead 
of taking Saturday, as with us, Prus.sian elementary schools are closed 
Wednesday and Saturday afternoons. Upon these half-days there is 
no instruction except as it may be necessary to fill out the time required 
for gymnastics and manual training. 

* Halt-day schools and schools with thren classes and two teachers give only twelve 
hours instruction weekly in the lowest divi.sion. 

tin Diisseldorf, sixteen holidays are allowed tor the Jewish festivals. Those not 
falling in regular vacations must be made up. when exceeding the number of holidays 
in other schools. 

o 



10 

The rural elementary schools in the government district of Potsdam 
are in session fortj'-two and fifty-seven hundredths weeks annually, 
the city and suburban schools forty-two and twenty-nine hundredths. 
The following serves to show when the vacations occur: 

City and suburban schools. 

Days. 

1. Easter 14 

2. Whitsuntide 4 

3. Summer vacation 28 

4. Michaelmas 8 

5. Christmas and New Year 14 



68 

Rural schools. 

1. Easter , . . . 10 

2. Whitsuntide '. . . . 4 

3. Summer vacation 42 

4. Christmas and New Year 10 



G6 



In addition to the religious holidays under 1, 2 and 5, and 1, 2 and 
4, the government recognizes two common to Romanists and Protest- 
ants and seven peculiar to the Romanists. 

Private schools must follow the rules of jjublic schools for the 
districts to which they belong. 

XIV. Recommendation foe New York. 

In 1889, the average length of time the schools of New York were 
in session was thirty-five and five-tenths week.s. The Prussian chil- 
dren gain from six to ten weeks a year. 

The township system, by equalizing local taxation, would enable us 
to increase the legal school year to at least forty weeks. 

XV. Prussian Elementaet Schools are Free. 

In this resjject Prussia has passed through three stages. Under 
the first elementary schools were entirely self-supporting; under the 
second they received State aid, but were still largely self-supporting; 
under the third, Laws of 1888 and 1889, elementary schools were made 
free and the State pays a larger j)roportion of the cost of maintenance. 
Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings and cost of heating. If 
unwilling to j^rovido proper school accommodations for the children 
of school age, they can be forced by the government to do so. Poor 
districts may receive special government aid to meet such expenses.* 

In France the elementary schools are not only gratuitous, but books, 
parser, ink and school supplies generally are provided free of charge. 
More than this, the children of indigent parents are furnished with 
warm food in winter, with shoes and with clothing. In Prussia books 

* In some distriets the State pays the entire cost of maintaininK the elementary schools. 
In other districts, excepting a small portion of teachers' salaries, the State pays nothing. 



11 

and school supplies are free only for the poor, who are also provided 
with food an<l clothing, that they may be enabled to attend school. 
Each district has its cain.-<e, the revenues of which depend upon 
government and district grants or assessments made upon large 
landholders. 

XVI. Teachers' W.\«es. 

The direct aim of the laws of June 14, 1888, and March 31, 1889, 
was to lighten the burden of local taxation for schools for children 
of school age. These laws have had a beneficial effect in increasing 
slightly the wages of teachers. 

Teachers' salaries are still quite small in Prussia, particularity in 
the case of females. Allowances are generally made for house-rent 
and fuel. Teachers in rural districts are provided with a house and 
garden. Their salaries are often not much more than half those jsaid 
city teachers of the same grade, and yet, as regards professional 
training and character of work, they are fully equal to city teachers. 
It must be borne in mind, however, that city life is, as a rule, far more 
expensive than country life. 

In comparing with salaries paid in New York, several things are to 
be considered. 

1. The great difference in the purchasing power of money. 

2. The absolute security of the teacher in his position. 

3. The fact that he draws a pension of from one-fourth to three- 
fourths of his salary upon his retirement, the amount depending 
upon the number of years of olHcial service.* 

As the following table shows the average annual salary received by 
teachers in Prussia in 1880 was §"2G7..50. The average for the same 
year in New York was $109. "27. The Prussian teacher, however, 
received fuel and dwelling free, in addition to his regular salary. 

Table A, taken from " I'reumgche Slalidik 101," published at 
Berlin in 188it, shows the increase in teachers' wages in elementary 
schools from 1820 to 1880. Hohenzolleru and the new provinces are 
not included. 

Table A. 



Number ot teachers, 1820. 
Number of teachers, 1878. 
Number of teachers, 1886. 

Average salaries, 1820t. . . 

Average salaries, 1878 

Average salaries, 1880. . . . 



City 

schools. 



3,745 
1.5,441 

18, 937 







$1.5!) 
351 25 
319 25 



Country 
schools. 



18,14(1 
29,942 
33,106 

$64 50 
238 25 
237 75 



Together. 



21,885 
45,386 
.52,043 

$80 75 
270 75 
207 50 



Small as these averages are for 1880, nevertheless they are aljout 
three and one-half times greater than in 1820. They are to be 
increased by the allowance made for fuel and rent. 

'In 1886. there were 4,211 pensioned elementary teachers in Prussia. The average 
pension was $l7n.M (681 marks) ; -19.89 per cent of all pensions was paid by the St.ate. 
t Reckoned at tour marks to the dollar. 



12 

Table B, from the same source, sliows the scale of salaries for 188G, 
excluding special teachers such as those of industrial training for 
girls, referred to under special teachers.* 

Table B. Per cent of 

loaehors. 

Salaries from $37.50 to $75.00t 00.02 

Salaries from 75.00 to 112.50 00.38 

Salaries from 112.50 to 150.00 05.08 

Salaries from 150.00 to 187.50 1-4.04 

Salaries from 187.50 to 225.00 21.74 

Salaries from 225.00 to 2G2. 50 20.41 

Salaries from 262.50 to 300.00 12.85 

Salaries from 300.00 to 337.50 07. 9C 

Salaries from 337.50 to 375.00 05.84 

Salaries from 375.00 to 412.50 03.44 

Salaries from 412.50 to 450.00 02.86 

Salaries from 450.00 to -487. 50 01.70 

Salaries from 487.50 to 525.00 01 .35 

Salaries from 525.00 to 5G2. 50 00.00 

Salaries from 5G2.50 to 600.00 00. G4 

Salaries from 600.00 to 637.50 00.25 

Salaries from 637.50 to 675.00 00.39 

Salaries from 675 . 00 to 712 . 50 00 . 08 

Salaries from 712 . 50 to 750 . 00 00.04 

Salaries above $750.00 00.32 



XVII. Total Cost of Public Education in Prussia. 

In 1885, the population of Prussia was 28,318,470, and the total 
cost of public education per caput was $1.7717. Drs. Schneider and 
Petersilie of Berlin, in " Pi-eussusche Stati>:fik 101," published in 1889, 
reckon the total cost for 1888, excluding armv and navj' schools, at 
$50,192,857. This amount is divided as follows: 

Universities $3,769,405 

High schools and seminaries 6,940,119 

Elementary instruction 37,357,857 

Trade schools 2,125,476 





Per caput. 


00 


$0.1322 


00 


0.2459 


00 


1.3187 


00 


0.0749 



$50,192,857 00 $1.7717 

As will be seen, about three-quarters of the total outlay is for ele- 
mentary instruction. 
The sources from which these funds come are : 

Per cent. 

(1) From the State 31.05 

(2) From districts (Kommunalveiitdnde) 46. 19 

(3) From revenues, funds, etc 22 . 76 



•Salaries advance with years of service. Male teachers with an experience of from 
ten to thirty vears are allowed $125, female teachers. $87.60. This allowance is called 
Allfrszulayt. In schools with two or more teachers, the scale of salaries advances by 
$:!7.50, the amount received dopcndinK upon experience in teaching 
t Beckoned at four marks to the dollar. 



13 

Of the total of 137,3.57,857 for elementary instruction, the State 
pays 25.11 per cent. This will be raised from one-fourth to oue-third 
by the law of 1889. 

With the excessive local burdens of the past, it is a significant fact 
that Prussia has nevertheless maintained a very high standard in all 
grades of schools. In New York, we can hope to accomplish this only 
through an approximate equalization of local taxation for school 
jjurposes. 

In Prussia, elementary instruction is the first consideration. The 
resolution adopted by tlie national assembly (Landtag) Decemlier 22, 
1870, is a good illustration of this. It was at the very crisis of the 
Franco-German war, yet the Landtag called on the government to 
increase the number of normal schools and the capacity of those 
already existing, and "thus to ]nit an end to the practice of filling up 
teachers' vacancies by appointing unqualified individuals" (Central- 
hlatl fur die gesammle Unterrivldx-Vcrwaltiing, Berlin, October, JS77). 
The result of this call is seen by the fact that twenty-four new nor- 
mal schools were founded between 1870 and 187G. 

The following table shows that, as in New York, the total cost of 
elementarj' instruction in Prussia has increased very rapidly within 
the past twenty years: 

1871 $13,187,713 81 

1878 21,051 ,57(i 'JO 

1886 30,338,77!) 7G 



It is interesting to note the sources from which these funds came : 





1871. 


1S7K. 


1886. 


Tuition bills 

Local taxes and funds 

From the State 


$2,499,712 86 

10.298,670 95 

689,330 00 


$3,089,411 20 

18,007,078 80 

2, 9.'5.5, 086 90 


$3,775,121 43 

23,l.W,2(i6 43 

3,404,391 90 








$13,487,713 81 


$24,051,570 90 


$30,338,779 76 



Tuition bills are now done away with except in the case of non- 
resident pujjils. The change thus brought about increased the 
amoimt given by the State to 25.11 per cent in 1S88. As above 
stated, the law of 1889 will raise the percentage of State aid from one- 
quarter to one-third the total cost of elementary instruction. 



SECOND CHAPTEE. 

I. The German Script. 

Upon first entering a Prussian elementary school, an American is 
struck forcibly with the amount of time wasted in learning the German 
written and printed characters. Mediioval German schools were for- 
tunate at least in not having this disadvantage to contend with. 

The (xermau script is a corruption of the Roman. Up to the twelfth 
centurj' the Roman was in use hj all Latin and German people. This 



14 

was gradually corrupted by the monks, and tbe so-called German 
script is the result. Upon the iuvention of printing, this script was 
modified still further, giving birth to the German printed characters. 

The children in the Prussian elementary schools are now forced to 
learn eight alphabets, while, in most all other civilized lands, it is 
found difficult enough to teach four. First come the German written 
capital letters, then the corresjionding small letters. The pupils ai-e 
next worried with the German printed aljjhabets, large and small 
characters. They have now learned four alphabets, the number 
taught in our elementary schools; but they have not yet finished 
their Fihel, the book corresponding to our Primer and First Reader, 
completed at the close of the second year of instruction. This Fihel 
contains two more alphabets, the Roman printed characters, large 
and small. The seventh and eighth alphabets, namely, the Roman 
written large and small letters, are taught sometimes in the third 
school year, but generally later. This depends largelj' upon the 
opinions of teachers and supervising officers touching the German 
and Latin script. 

Many famous Germans, such as Jak. Grimm, Leibnitz, Wieland, Ew. 
V. Kleist, Bodmer, Ramler, Hoelty, Richard Wagner, have declared 
against the German script and printed characters. More than 100 
university professors and (5,000 teachers have followed their example. 
Thousands of books, and scientific works very generally, are printed 
every year in Roman characters. Nevertheless, force of habit and a 
false feeling of patriotism have thus far enabled the so-called German 
alphabets to retain their position in the schools. 

More than 250,000,000 of people use exclusively the Roman char- 
acters. They are understood throughout the civilized world. England, 
A.merica, Italy, Spain and France dictate in these characters to all 
who would have business or other relations with them. Holland, 
Sweden, Denmark and Bohemia realize this fact, and are now retui-n- 
ing to the purer forms, which were in use up to the twelfth century. 
In spite of the ardent defenders of this same movement, Germany 
hesitates, and thus preserves a very formidable barrier between her 
self and other civilized nations. 

Everj' practical educator will see at once the importance of this 
question. Much time is wasted in learning 100 supertiuous letters. 
These letters are studied before the pupil's handwriting is formed, 
and, between the German and the Roman script, it is difficult for him 
to write consistently. 

In justice to the teaching of penmanship in Prussian elementary 
schools, one must admit that, in view of this great disadvantage, the 
results obtained are surprisingly good. The pupils vprite fully as 
well as our own. Later in life, however, when they have used both 
aljjhabets to a greater extent, confusion of the two is apt to follow. 
It is very easy for us to decipher the German script when written as 
it should be, but we must work very hard to read readily ordinary 
business or social correspondence. The teacher whose written work 
in the school-room has struck you most favorably will often write a 
letter, which, when cold, he himself would have difficulty in decipher- 
ing. As with us, the i>upils imitate the careful written work of the 
teacher in the school-room, and, up to a certain age, there is little 



15 

variety. When, however, the handwriting is fully formed, that indi- 
viduality comes out which gives it a distinctive character. With this 
individuality the German associates a greater degi'ee of illegibility 
than the American. 

II. Oethohhaphy. 

The attention of the American turns naturally from penmanship to 
orthography. He notes that German words are not spelled as in his 
school days. Accustomed to uniformity in this respect, the question 
interests him at once. 

The orth(_)graphy or Rechtgchreihunrj, as the Germans call it, now 
taught in the Prussian schooltJ, dates from the beginning of the school 
year 1880-81. It differs enough from the orthography taught prior 
to this date to make it rather unsafe for a father to attempt to correct 
the work of his children. Some of my readers have sons who have 
told them they knew nothing about Latin because they did not under- 
stand a quotation with the Roman or Continental pronunciation. 
German parents run the risk of being told by their children that 
they can not spell, when they write, as thej' often do, contrary to the 
new system of orthography. 

The movement toward reform in English orthography has stronger 
advocates than is generally supposed, both in America and England. 
In Germany, however, the movement in a corresponding direction is 
much more widely felt. Far from satisfied with the system now in 
use, the Germans seem to be drifting toward phonetic sjselliug. One 
of the greatest safeguards with them, as with us, comes from the lack 
of uniformity in the systems proposed. 

III. Dialects. 

Another disadvantage under which Prussian elementary schools 
labor arises from the prevalence of various dialects. The children of 
the common people, upon first entering school, often speak and under- 
stand only the dialect of their parents. This is especially true in 
manufacturing districts. Many teachers gave me g'rajdiic descriptions 
of the difficulties encountered in endeavoring to teach High German. 
So great are these dialectic differences, that it often seems at first 
like teaching a foreign tongue. 

IV. Language Used in Teaching. 

Since 188'J, except in the case of religious instruction in districts 
with a large foreign j^opuhition, the German language has been used 
universally in teaching all subjects in Prussian elementary schools. 
Up to 1887, the Polish language was in use in schools made up of 
Poles, and up to April 1, 1889, pupils in North Sclileswig were taught 
in the Danish language. 

Statistics of 1886 show that ten and thirty-five-one-hundredths per 
cent of the total number of children in attendance upon public ele- 
mentary schools spoke only the Polish language at home. The per- 
centage of children in whose families German was the only language 
spoken, was eighty-six and fifty-eight-oiic-huudredths. In the families 
of the other thirteen and forty-two-one-hundredths per cent, either 



16 

another language was spoken in addition to German, or only a foreign 
tongue. 

Number of children in whose families only Polish was 

spoken 500,315 

Number of children in whose families only Sclavonic dia- 
lects were spoken 31 , 473 

Number of children in whose families only Danish was 

spoken 24,088 

Number of children in whose families only some language 

other than German was spoken 4 , 049 

Total 559,925 

Number of children in whose families only German was 

spoken 4,188,857 

Number of children in whose families German and another 

language were spoken 89 , 465 

Total 4,888,247 



From this we see that the difficulty of teaching more or less in a 
foreign tongue existed in 188{) in the case of quite a considerable 
percentage of the school children. 

With children entii'ely ignorant of German, the difficulty will not 
be overcome before the third or fourth school year. 

Special text and reference-books have been issued for schools with 
a large foreign population. Courses of study are modified to meet 
the needs of such schools, and teachers receive special training therefor. 

The Prussian government moved very carefully in this matter. 
Experiments seemed to prove the advisability of adopting the German 
language generally, and reports show that the results are verj- 
satisfactory. 

The exjjeriments made before adopting exclusively the German 
language in schools made up of foreigners were most interesting. 
The Minister of Public Instruction conducted these experiments in 
person. It was everywhere found that ch'ldren who had not spoken 
a single German word before entering school, not only made great 
progress in the elementai-y school curriculum when the instruction 
was given in German, but also expressed themselves best in their 
native tongue. The ministry was at last satisfied that it was advisable 
to adopt the German language exclusive of all others. 

V. Other Language Wobk. 

Other language work in Prussian elementary schools differs very 
little from that in New York, as will be seen by reference to the courses 
of study. In teaching reading, the use of the alphabet method is 
positively forbidden in all schools. More attention is paid, later in 
the course, to ordinary business forms than is the case generally with 
us. For examjile, the government has supplied each school with 
specimens of mail matter, such as envelopes, money-orders, parcel- 
express blanks, etc., and pujjils are instructed carefully as to their 
uses. The same care is shown in drawing notes, bills, receipts, etc. 



17 

Another point worthy of mention is the instruction given in memor- 
iziiit,'- proverbs, aphorisms and selections in poetry and prose. This is 
pushed much further than with us. 

I'russia sets us a good example in her elementary schools as regards 
the attention paid to German literature. In our elementary schools 
we do not succeed as well as the Prussians in cultivating a taste for 
good reading. 

VI. Arithmetic. 

The time wasted in acquiring four additional alphabets is jiartly 
compensated by the time saved in arithmetic through the Metric Sys- 
tem. Would that England and America were willing to follow the 
example of other countries in this respect. 

The method of teaching arithmetic is that used in our best schools, 
and known here as the Grube method. 

Mental arithmetic is i^racticed much more than in New York. 

VII. Geography. 

Geography, as with us, begins in the third school year with a 
description of the school-house and the school district. It is taught 
in connection with history. The pupils learn thoroughly the geog- 
raphy of the mother and neighboring countries. Their ideas of 
other parts of the world, including America, are rather vague, as a 
rule. 

VIII. History. 

History is much better taught than in most of our schools. This 
is deemed necessary in order to develoj) a 8j)irit of patriotism and 
loyalty to the Emjieror. There is no subject in our public schools 
which is so imperfectly taught as United States history. It is high 
time to devote our attention to modern methods of teaching this most 
important branch of common school work. 

IX. Natdr.^l History. 

As will be seen by reference to courses of study, natural history, in 
its broadest sense, receives far more attention than in New York. 
This work seems rather difficult for elementary schools. In fact, the 
government has noted a tendency toward abstract and technical 
instruction, and directed the school commissioners and teachers to 
simplify the work. This subject is considered one of the most import- 
ant in the elementary school curriculum. To be beneficial, however, 
it must beTery simply taught. 

X. Music. 

It is well known that the Germans, as a people, are far ahead of us 
in all that pertains to music, which is an essential factor in their ele- 
mentary' school course. It is to be hoped that we shall soon follow 
their example, at least as regards attention paid to memorizing national 
songs. These patriotic songs not only awaken love toward the Father- 
land, but also, another most important feature, tend to lessen the 
influence of vulgar popular music. We are far from having so tine 
a collection as the Germans of national songs and songs of the i^eofjle. 
3 



18 

We have, however, much that is good, and more attention should be 
devoted to its memorization. 

It is to be noted that the Germans follow, in teaching music in ele- 
mentary schools, the old system of solfeggio or Solmization, as they 
call it. This system is now about 800 years old. 

Although courses of study suggest that singing in unison is all 
that teachers may expect to accomplish, except under the most favor- 
able circumstances, experience shows that these conditions exist very 
often. Visitors to Prussian elementary schools will hear frequently 
most excellent singing in several parts. In Prussia all male element- 
ary school teachers must be able to play more or less upon the violin. 
Among them there is an astonishing number of thorough musicians. 

XI. Physicai Training. 

Prussian courses of study show that considerable attention is paid 
to physical training. Germany suffers from the lack of a national 
game corresponding to English cricket or American base ball. These 
games, with intervals of tennis, boating, swimming and other out-of- 
door sports, do more toward the physical development of English 
and American children than the detailed instructions of the Prussian 
educational department regulating physical exercises. The three 
years' military service of the Germans is, unquestionably, the most 
imjiortant factor in their physical development, as a people. This 
service begins at twenty years of age, and, up to this time, the youth is 
far from having that sujjpleness of liody and quickness of action 
which characterize American young men. 

In Prussia the object of physical training in the elementary schools 
is to insure strength to complete satisfactorily the amount of mental 
work laid down by law. Teachers are directed to watch carefully 
over the health of their puj^ils. Special attention is paid to proper 
carriage and postures, near-sightedness and deafness. It is the 
teacher's duty to give notice of blind and deaf and dumb pupils or 
those threatened with blindness and loss of hearing, that same maj' 
be sent to the institutions provided for such cases. 

As regards the necessity in American elementary schools of appa- 
ratus for gymnastic exercises, such as parallel and horizontal bars, 
etc., it may be said generally that such ajjparatus is needed only 
in city schools where children have little opportunity for physical 
exercise. 

XII. Industrial Training for Girls. 

This course in Prussian elementary schools is practical, quite 
thorough and inexpensive. Its object is to fit girls for domestic life. 
Fancy stitching is not taught. Girls learn only plain household 
work. 

A similar course should be introduced generally in New York ele- 
mentary schools. 

Xm. DEA\\aNG. 

Instruction in drawing in Prussian elementary schools now follows 
the method of Dr. A. Stuhlmauu, introduced generally by the Prussian 
ministry in 1887 {" LeUfaden fur den Zeichenunterrirhl von Dr. A. Sluhl- 
mann " — Spemann, Berlin, 1800). 



19 

Dr. A. Stuhlmann makes three divisions of the work for elementary 
schools. 

(1) Second and third school years: Drawing with the aid of squares 
{Nelzzeiclinen). 

(2) Fourth, iifth and sixth school years: Free drawing of plane 
figures. 

(3) Seventh and eighth school years: Free drawing from solid bodies. 

A fourth course, also for the seventh and eighth school years, is 
devoted to work from plaster of Paris models. 

Work in drawing is simple, systematic and thoroughly practical. 
It consists of the drawing of symmetrical figures, characteristic forms 
of plants, simijle work in ornamental drawing, etc. Eye and hand 
are trained with especial reference to industrial drawing. 

XrV. Training of Children in the Love of the Fatherland. 

In Prussian schools the utmost pains are taken to foster the spirit 
of patriotism. The law requires that a likeness of the Emperor be 
placed in each school-room. Courses of study improve every oppor- 
tunity to call attention to the importance of cultivating a national 
spirit. From the cradle, the Prussian child leai'ns the national songs. 
At every step one is reminded that Prussia is a laud of patriots. 

In New York the appointment of Arbor Day was the first movement 
toward the recognition of the importance of this subject in connection 
with our schools. This attempt to cultivate a national spirit is most 
praiseworthy. Teachers and all school officers should spare no pains 
in developing a i^roper spirit of patriotism and love of our free 
institutions. If this were done as in Prussia, the history and geogra- 
phy of our own country would no longer be looked upon by pupils 
as dry and uninteresting. 

XV. Text-books. 

A complete list is made by the government of all text-l)ooks which 
may be used in the schools. This list must be followed. The director 
of a high school and the school commissioner in the case of an ele- 
mentary school, are forced, if they desire to introduce a new book, to 
state the defects of the old one and the advantages of the proposed 
substitute and submit this statement, with a copy of the new book, to 
the government. There is but one time of the year in which new 
books may be introduced. 

Prussian elementary schools use fewer text-books for pupils 
and more reference books for teachers than New York elementary 
schools. 

The paper, binding and printing of our school-books is much better 
than that of the (lerman books. Our books present a much more 
attractive appearance, but are more expensive in conse<iuence. Ger- 
man text-books are often mere outlines. The first book in geography 
covers only the government district. Each government district 
uses a special book for this purpose. This peculiarity is worth of note. 
Another peculiarity is the text-book in the Eealien, embracing geogra- 
])hy, history and natural history. The readers offer at times an illus- 
tratiou of the danger of pushing too far a principle good per .se. This 
principle is to take up only the work of standard authors. Statistics 



20 

and descriptions of America and rapidly growing cities and countries in 
other parts of the world, written years ago, do not give as a rule a 
very correct idea of the state of things to-day. Readers in present 
use in Prussian elementary schools contain examples establishing the 
justice of this criticism. 

All pupils must be supplied with books. In the school lists of 
pupils, the occupation of the father is always given, and it is the duty 
of the teacher to know what children must be supplied with books. 
Except in the case of poverty, when books and stationery are fur- 
nished free of charge, parents and guardians can be forced by law to 
provide them. This happens, indeed, very seldom. 

As is the case where teachers ai-e properly trained, Prussian instruc- 
tors use text-books very little in recitations. I have often been present 
for hours at recitations in elementary schools when the teacher did 
not refer a single time to a text or reference book. 

Text-books are free only to the children of indigent parents. They 
are not printed by the government. In drawing up the official lists 
of text-books which may be used, care is taken to avoid an unneces- 
sary variety. The State aims to insure uniformity in each province in 
the text-books used in all schools of the same class. 

XVI. Apparatus Used in Teaching. 

Except in the case of blackboard surface, which, according to our 
standard, is inferior in quality and entirely inadequate in extent, 
Prussian elemeutai-y schools are generally far better supplied than 
our own with apjDaratus used in teaching. As will be seen from the 
regulations under courses of study, the government fixes definitely 
the minimum of articles required in teaching in each class. It is the 
exception when schools are not far more fullj- furnished with such 
apjsaratus than the letter of the law requires. 

XVII. Teachers' Librakies. 

These libraries are under the charge of the school commissioner 
and a committee of his teachers. They are composed of works on 
pedagogics, history, natural history, school journals and reading mat- 
ter of general interest to teachers. In connection therewith, one often 
finds very good collections of minerals, bugs, etc. These libraries are 
supjjorted by and accessible to the teachers of the school-commissioner 
district. For a very small sum, say twenty-five cents a year, teachers 
have the use of books which they could not afford to buy. The regu- 
lations for these libraries, which are set up in the place of residence 
of the school commissioner, are very like those of our New York 
loaning libraries. 

XVni. Interest of the General Public in School Work. 

This is in striking contrast with the indifference of the people of 
New York. Parks and skating-rinks, botanical and zoological gardens, 
gymnasia and swimming schools, libraries and museums are opened 
to the school children. Teachers attend with their classes special 
theatrical performances of German and foreign classics. 



21 

THIRD CHAPTEE. 

Religious Instruction. 

Religious instruction is the foundation-stone of elementary school 
work in Prussia. This instruction, both in the public and in the 
private schools, is compulsofv. It is regulated by law, is entirely 
impartial, aud is considered an essential part of the education of each 
pupil. Roman Catholics, Protestants and Jews have masters of their 
own faith, but no one can give religious instruction who is not author- 
ized by the general government. Except in the country, all elementary 
schools are confessional. In the case of these rural mixed schools, the 
religious belief of the teacher depends on that of a plurality of the 
pupils. To entitle children to special religious instruction other than 
that of a plurality of the pu]iils, there must be at least twelve pupils 
who demand it. When possible, it is desirable that schools unite for 
this purpose. 

In the maintenance of local schools, Jews and Christians have the 
same legal rights. In Jewish secondary schools, Christian teachers 
are sometimes employed, but not vice oer.sa. Indeed, with the excep- 
tion of schools of art, of industry and of navigation, the .Tews can teach 
only in Jewish schools. Every synagogue community is forced by law 
to give the necessary instruction in Judaism to children between the 
ages of and 14. It may be said briefly that pupils must receive 
instruction in accordance with the religious belief of their parents. 
Unbaptized children of Roman Catholics or Protestants receive natur- 
ally religious instruction in accordance with the faith of their parents. 
A teacher can not force a pupil to receive other religious instruction 
than that in the faith of his parents, except at the request of these 
parents. 

It must not be overlooked that Prussian i)arents can choose for their 
children a jjublic school, a private school or instruction in the family. 
All private schools, however, are under the immediate supervision of 
the government, and teachers in these private schools must have the 
same qualifications as the teachers in the public schools. Further- 
more, if instruction be given in the family, the government has the 
duty, through her supervising officers, to see that said instruction be 
an equivalent for that given in the public schools. Inasmuch as 
religious instruction is an essential part of the elementary school 
cin-ricKluin, the teachers must be qualified. The time-tables under 
Courses of Study, given in the sixth chapter, show how regular this 
religious instruction is, both for Roman Catholics and for Protestants. 

In connection with religious instruction, it should be stated that 
clergymen in Prussia, are to a certain extent officers of the State. A 
majority receive a part of their salary, sometimes half, directly from 
the State treasury. They must all have absolved the gymnasial course 
of nine years aud the university course of three or four years or a 
theological course in a divinity school of recognized standing. 

The following is a brief summary of the principal decrees regulat- 
ing religious instruction: 

(1) Decision as to the character of religious iustructiou depends 
principally upon the father. 



22 

(2) It is the father's duty to see that the child receive religious 
instruction conformable to his faith and condition in life. 

(3) Children born in wedlock must receive instruction in the religion 
of the father. 

(4) No legal contracts can be made to change the rule siih 3. 

(5) In the case of mixed marriages, agreements made before or at 
marriage to train the children in the religion of the mother have no 
legal force. 

((!) If father and mother, hoveever, agree as to the religious instruc- 
tion their children are to receive, no third person has authority to 
interfere. 

(7) At the death of the father, the religious instruction in his faith 
must be continued. 

(8) No attention is to be paid to death-bed conversions to another 
faith. 

(9) If, however, the child has received, the last entire year before 
death of father, religious instruction according to the mother's faith, 
this instruction must be continued until the said child be 14 years of 
age. 

(10) After the death of the father, it becomes the duty of the court 
for guardianship {Vormuiidschaftf^(jerickt) to see that the child receive 
religious iostruction according to law. 

(11) Children born out of wedlock receive, until 14 years of age, 
religious instruction according to the faith of the mother. 

(12) They who assume care of a child abandoned by his parents 
acquire the rights of parents, and therefore, decide as to the character 
of religious instruction until said child be 14 years of age. 

(13) The same rule holds good in the case of adopted children. 

(14) When 14 years of age, children can decide for themselves as to 
the religious denomination to which they will belong. 

(15) Before 14 years of age, no religious denomination can receive 
a child or permit an open confession of faith other than that to which 
said child belongs by law. 

Division of Children of School Age in the Public Elementary Schools 
According to Religiods Faith upon May 20, 188G. 

The hours devoted to religious instruction vary from four to six 
weekly. 

Teachers. Pupils. 

23 , 122 Protestant schools with * 41 , 539 ||2 , 993 , 852 

10,061 Roman Catholic schools with f 19, 632 ||] ,613,497 

12 other Christian schools with J31 870 

318 Jewish schools with 407 13,270 

503 mixed § schools with 3,141 216,758 



34,016 64,750 ■ 4,838,247 



* IncludiDg three of other Christian bodies. 

t Including one Protestant. 

t Including throe Protestants. 

§ In 318 of these mixed scliools for Romanists and Protestants, there are special 
religious teachers. 

II 64.960 Roman Catholic pupils attended Protestant schools and 26,87a Protestant pupil.s, 
Roman Catholic schools. 



23 

FOURTH CHAPTER. 

School-houses and Sites. 

Prussia labors under the disadvantage of having many school-houses 
which were built before much attention was paid to heating, lighting, 
ventilation and other sanitary arrangements. As regards school-desks, 
she is still very conservative. Many new elementary schools which are 
looked upon as models are furnished with the old desk, five and six 
pupils to each desk. In fact, the normal Prussian elementary school- 
room has but two rows of desks, one on either side, with a broad aisle 
in the center. Pupils near the wall, to pass out, must walk along the 
seat, the others leaning forward to give them a foothold. 

The regulations touching school buildings are quite detailed, but, 
as is too often the case with us, are not always strictly enforced. These 
regulations, stated briefly, are as follows (Diisseldorf ) : 

1. School-Jioii^e site. This must be in a sunny and dry open space, 
remote from the most frequented streets, and from everything likely 
to disturb the instruction or injurious to the health of the j^upils. In 
large districts care should be taken to choose a site near the center. 
Good drinking-water must be furnished. The site should be large 
enough to afford the necessary jilay-grouud. If possible, the building 
should stand entirely free from other buildings. When necessary to 
build near the street, an open space should be left, that the children, 
in leaving the school, step not directly into the street. 

2. School-rooms. When possible, these are to be upon the ground 
floor. If more than one story be necessary, the younger pupils should 
have the ground floor. Where special class-rooms are provided for 
boys and girls, they should be furnished with separate entrances. 

If teacher is to reside in school-house, his apartment should be 
separated from the school-rooms, and, if possible, should have a private 
entrance. In building a school-house, care should be taken for addi- 
tions which may be necessary in the future. 

y. Construction of huihhng. Stone or brick is the rule. Frame 
buildings can be built only when special local conditions make it 
advisable. All walls must be isolated by asphalt, glass or cement, 
below the ground floor and above the ground level. The roofs are to 
be covered with a lire-proof material. The eaves are to Ije provided 
with gutters and conductors. The floor of the school-room must be 
at least one-half meter above the ground, and when there is no cellar, 
care should be taken that same be perfectly dry. The partitions 
between floors should lie packed, to insure quiet. Columns to support 
ceilings or roof should not be placed within the school-rooms. Around 
the building there should lie a gutter, at least one meter wide, provided 
with conductor to carry off the water. 

4. Use of huildinrj after completion. The new building is not to be 
used until thoroughly dry. In the case of buildings of brick and 
stone, this will not be within less than sis months after the completion 
of the walls. 

5. Size of the scliool- rooms. This depends upon the number of pupils. 
School-rooms for more than eighty pupils are not allowed. For every 
child there must be a floor space of at least three-quarters of a square 



24 

meter, in which the necessary room for passages, desks and stoves is 
included. A class-room for eighty children demands, therefore, a 
space of sixty square meters. Schoolrooms for less than fifty pupils 
must be large enough to afford floor space for each child of at least 
one square meter. The length of school-room should be to the breadth 
as three to two; only in the case of classes for less than fifty jjupils is 
the form approaching the square permissible. The length of the room 
from the last desk to the blackboard should not exceed nine meters. 
Where school-rooms are lighted from but one side, the distance from 
the farthest desk to the nearest window should not exceed six meters. 
Ceilings under four meters are not allowed. Floor space and height 
must be so measured that each child, by natural ventilation, have not 
less than three cubic meters' space. 

6. The Jluor of the school-room must be level and solid. It is 
advisable to oil the same. 

7. The avails and ceiling must be smooth. The walls should be 
painted light blue or green (one jDoisonless color); the ceilings white- 
washed or calcimined. 

8. The doors must be at least a meter wide, and must open out- 
wardly. The children should face the entrance. 

9. TJie ivindows. Care should be taken to i^i-event, during school 
hours, direct or reflected sunlight. Where this is not possible, windows 
should be supplied with curtains. Marquiaen, that is, curtains of slats 
of wood, are espeeiall}' good, in that they do not interfere with the 
ventilation. Curtains of dark green are best. The light should come 
to the pupil over the left shoulder from behind; windows facing the 
children are not allowed, and, only in exceptional cases, windows on 
both sides. The school-room is the better lighted in proportion to 
the height of the light above the floor. The area of the window 
openings must, where school building is in an open si^ace, be at least 
one-fifth that of the floor space. This is to be increased where light 
is shut off by other buildings, trees, etc. The space between two 
windows along the wall should not exceed one meter and a quarter. 
All windows must be made to open easily. 

10. Healing. The stoves should be so placed as to afford, so far as 
possible, the same temperature throughout the school-room. They 
should not be placed, as a rule, in the center of the school-room. 
The best place is generally near the long wall free from windows. 
They should be provided with a screen of sheet-iron or tin. Dampers 
in stove-jjipe should never be made to close tightly. In large school 
buildings, central heating is recommended. To insure the jiroper 
temperature, thirteen to sixteen degrees R. (sixty-one and one-quarter 
degrees to sixty-eight degrees F.), a thermometer must be placed in 
every school-room, at least one meter and a half above the floor, and 
at a point where the mean temperature may be ascertained.* 

11. VentUation. Every school-room must be properly ventilated. 
Inasmuch as, during school-hours, windows should not be opened 
wide, the upper sashes should be made to open outwardly on a pivot. 

*In elementary Sfhools in Prussi-i, when thermometer register.s above twenty-two 
doerees R. loighty-one and flve-tenths degrees F.I in the shade at 11 A. ii., there is gen- 
erally no afternoon session, lu higher schools, this matter is in the discretion of the 
director. 



In the opposite walls ventilators should he i^laced at about the same 
height. Care should be taken in heatiu-,' that foul air be removed 
and fresh air introduced. The first is to be accomplished by ventila- 
tion-pipes connected with the chimney; the latter by a cold-air box 
under the floor, introducing cold air into the open space between the 
stove and covering'. Where central heating is used there must be an 
approved sj'stem of ventilation. 

12. Halh and dairti. These must be light, roomy and free from 
draughts. The main halls should not be less than two and one-half 
meters wide. All stairs must be couv(!nieut, never too steep. Steps 
before the entrance should be of stone and provided with railings. 
Stairways should be at least one and a quarter meters wide. The 
height of the steps should not exceed nineteen centimeters. Wind- 
ing stairs are not allowed, nor should single flights from story to story 
be built without landings. The open side of stairways is to be pro- 
vided with a Italustrade, the other side with hand railings. In large 
school buildings the stairs should be of brick, iron or stone. Foot 
mats should be placed at the foot of each flight of stairs. 

13. Dvdliii'j of teacher. If in school building and tor a married 
teacher, this must consist of five living rooms, and in addition, a 
kitchen, pantry, cellar and garret. For an unmarried teacher, one 
living and one sleeping room. For a female teacher, a kitchen, cellar 
and garret are also necessary. When there are several teachers' 
apartments in the same building, these should be jsroperly separated. 
If the size of site permit, si:)ace should he given to teacher for a 
garden. This space must not be taken from the play-ground. 

14. Privieti. These should be without the school buildings, with 
sejjarate accommodations for the sexes. They should be so placed 
that the prevalent winds blow not toward the school building. For 
eighty boys there should be at least two separate privies, for eighty 
girls at least three. The doors should be provided with bolts from 
within. Each compartment should not be less than three-quarters of 
a meter wide and one and one-quarter meters deep. The height of 
the seats, according to the age of the children, varies from thirty-five- 
one-hundredths to forty-five-one-hundredths of a meter. These seats 
must be provided with covers. The pits must be water-tight and pro- 
vided with ventilating-pipes. Urinals must be provided for the boys, 
separated by partitions of sufficient height to leave the shoulders 
alone visible. 

15. Play-f/rou)uL This should be as near as convenient to the school- 
house, so that, if possible, the whole may be overlooked from the 
school building. Each pupil must have at least two and one-half 
square meters space. The whole must be properly drained. The 
borders may be planted with trees. Each play-ground must be pro- 
vided with the necessary apparatus for gymnastic exercises, and, 
according to need, benches. When possible, a part of the play-ground 
should be covered for use in rain}' weather. 

ir>. School-dufka. These must be made with special regard to the 
health of the pupils. All must be ju'ovided with backs. The general 
rule is to bind together desk and seat so that each pupil have a space 
from fifty-one-hundredths to sixty-one-huudredths of a meter. Desks 
should be regulated in size according to the age of the children. 



26 

Desks for two pupils are recommended. Plans for the ordinary desks 
(for from four to six pupils) are furnished. 

17. Position of desks. The desks should be so placed that the light 
falls over the left shoulder of the children. In the rear and upon 
the long window-side, there should be a free space of at least four 
meters; in front, a free space of at least two and a half meters. 

18. The teacher's desk. This should be placed upon a platform two 
and one-half meters deep, one and one-fourth meters wide, fifteen- 
one-hundredths meters high. 

19. Blackboards, etc. Each school-room must be provided with the 
necessary number of blackboards and a closet for the preservation 
of the objects used in teaching. 

20. When no cloak-room exists, pegs for overcoats and hats should 
be placed in the school-room. 

21. New school huUdings. When, in the judgment of the Local and 
Kreisschulinsjicklor, with the concurrence of the Landrulh and district 
architect, the building of a new school is deemed necessary, the dis- 
trict architect must submit to the government a plan with an estimate 
of cost. If the jilan be accepted, the district builder advertises for 
bids for the necessary building material. The best and cheapest is 
taken and the district builder, who is personally responsible, goes on 
with the building. The wisdom of this j)rovision is seen from the 
fact that such buildings never exceed the estimates, while iu the case 
of buildings not under governmental control, the cost is often fifty 
per cent greater than the original estimate. 

Observations. 

New York has little to learn from Prussia as regards school buildings. 
Regulations are often transgressed there as here. School-rooms, as I 
saw, are frequently overcrowded. 

The ministerial decree of March 26, 1827, fixes a limit of eighty 
pupils for ungraded schools and seventy for each class in graded 
schools. In 1886, only .5.3.8-i per cent of all the children received 
instruction under these conditions. 

May 5, 1873, the minister of public instruction was forced to decree 
that the following state of things was to be tolerated for the time 
being. 

Under one teacher From 80 to 120 

Under two teachers From 120 to 200 

Under three teachers From 200 to 300 

But even these limits are often exceeded in districts where the popu- 
lation is rapidly increasing. 

In Posen the average number of children falling to one teacher in 
1886, was seventy-four iu the city schools and 110 iu the country 
schools. In fifteen of the thirty-six government districts {Regier- 
vngshezirke), the average number of children, falling to one teacher, 
exceeded eighty in the country, and in three government districts in 
the citj' schools. In the whole kingdom there were 23,1,^2 schools 
with one teacher, 6,592 of which were overcrowded. It is worthy of 
note that only 8,826 pupils were not received directly because of 
insufficient school accommodations. 



27 

Official statistics show that there were only 4,012 classes with lesjs 
than ;iO pupils, 1,995 of which were in ungraded schools. 

With 4,838,217 jsupils in her public elementary schools, Prussia 
employed, in 1886, (14,750 regular teachers. In New York public 
schools in 188G, 31,1525* teachers were employed and the total uuml)er 
of children in attendance at any time during the j'ear was only 
1,027,767. In other words, the average number falling to one teacher 
in Prussia was a fraction above 74; in New York, a fraction above 32. 

These figures show the great disadvantage under which we are 
placed by the very unequal distribution of our population. When 
we add to this, our most unjust system of local taxation for school 
purposes, it seems astonishing that small rural districts maintain the 
schools as they are at present. It is not surprising that all who have 
given the subject thought are 2>ractically unanimous in favor of the 
township system. 

School-rooms in Prussia are often dark and poorly ventilated. Privies 
are frequently in the same buildings, and in mixed rural schools, proper 
provision is not always made for separate "ccommodations for the sexe.?. 

In the erection of new buildings, the regulations are strictly 
enforced and class-rooms are not built to accommodate more than 
eighty pupils. 

Of the total number of pupils in attendance upon the public 
elementary schools May 20, 1886, 4,700,300 were within less than 
two miles of the schools attended, 131,947 were at a greater distance. 



FIFTH CHAPTER 

I. Institutions for Children Under School Age. 

Although somewhat foreign to the subject in hand, before consider- 
ing the elementary schools proper, reference is made to the different 
institutions for children under school age. 

1. Krippen (Creches). 

These are upon the plan first introduced at Paris, by Marbeau, in 
1844. Babies, whose mothers are forced to work for a living, are 
kept until 2 years of age. Thej' are cared for in these institutions 
upon working days, the mothers calling for them every evening. 

2. Kinderhetrahrandalten. 

These are for the children of the laboring classes until 4 years of 
age. They were first introduced into Germany in 1802. Young 
children receive the care which parents are unable to give them at 
home. 

3. Kleinkinderscli ulen. 

These continue to care for the children of the poorer classes until 
they become of school age. France founded these institutions in 
1801. Thoy were soon adoijted in Germany. 



• Only 22,240 were employed for a ooQtinuous term of twenty-eight weeks or more. 



28 

4. Kindei-gdrten. 

These were intended originally for the children of the wealthier 
classes under school age. Tlie tirst Kindergarten was founded by 
Froebel in 1840. In 1851 they were proscribed by the governments 
of Prussia and Saxony, upon the ground that they planted the seeds 
of socialism and atheism. Kindergarten were then.forced to abandon 
the theories and organization of Froebel, and most of tliem adopted 
the name of play-schools {Spielschulen). 

The fundamental ideas of Froebel were better understood some- 
what later, and the ban i^laced upon Kindergarten was raised. 

For some years past enthusiasts have urged, without success, the 
advisability of making Kindergarten public. 

The institutions for children under school age were founded, for 
the most part, by private individuals and charitable societies. Gen- 
erally speaking, the Germans recognize alone the advantages of insti- 
tutions of the first three classes where, strictlj' speaking, no attempt 
is made to teach the children. In manufacturing districts, where 
parents can not look at all after their children during the day, such 
institutions are considered matters of necessit}'. City governments 
sometimes maintain these institutions. 

Ministerial decrees refer to all institutions for children under school 
age as Einderbeirahranstalten, Warte^chulen and Kindergarten. The 
names under 2, 3 and 4 are often used interchangeably. They 
are controlled by the State in the same manner as other private insti- 
tutions and are found, as a rule, only in larger cities. 

As regards the last three classes of these institutions, Kinderbewahr- 
anxlalten, Kleinkinderfchulen and Kindergarten, the government instruc- 
tions to school commissioners are very strict. They must see that 
rooms be of suiScient size to accommodate the children enrolled; that 
same be properly ventilated, heated and lighted ; and that the persons 
in charge do not encroach in the least upon elementary school work. 

In some provinces considerable trouble has been occasioned bj- the 
fact that children have been kept in these institutions until 9 or 10 
years of age. The following provisions for Schleswig-Holstein, from 
May 31, 1884, will serve to show how this matter has been regulated. 

a. Private institutions for children, both under and of school 
age, should not be authorized except under very excejjtional local 
conditions. 

/). The time chiklren are to attend such institutions, when author- 
ized, must be definitely stated and is not to exceed the eighth year 
of age. 

c. Children of school age must receive distinct elementary instruc- 
tion in a seijarate school-room. 

d. These conditions apply to all present existing institutions. If 
the condition sub (c.) can not be carried out, children of school age 
must leave said institutions at Easter next year.* 

II. TuE Vauious Institutions for Children of School Age. 

The Prussian child between the ages of 6 and 14 may be in attend- 
ance upon any one of the following institutions: 

* There is generally but one time of year, and that Easter, for admission of children 
into the elementary schools. 



29 

1. The different Gymnafiia: The full course at these high schools 
lasts uiue j'ears, aud begins after three years of primary instruction. 

"2. The MiUelschulen: There is really no gradation between element- 
ary and middle schools. The latter merely go on somewhat further 
with elementary school work, introducing French, Latin aud English. 
The advanced class in an elementary school of six classes may be per- 
mitted to follow the course of studj' for middle schools. 

3. Institutions for the blind {-BlindenaiixtaUen). 

■i. Deaf and dumb asyla {Taubdummen-BildungsanMalten). 

5. Orphan asyla { WaixenandaUen). 

6. Insane asyla {IdiotenandaUen). 

7. Keform schools {Beltung.fanstal/en). 

8. The elementary schools proper {Elementan^chiden). 

He may receive instruction in a public school, a private school or 
in the family. There are very few private schools in Prussia, however, 
and all are under the immediate supervision of the government. As 
a rule, private schools may be founded only where there is a lack of 
public school accommodations. Teachers in these private schools 
must have the same qualifications as those required by law for the 
public schools. In case of children instructed at home, the govern- 
ment school inspectors are authorized to test the qualifications of the 
persons who give said instruction. They can demand, furthermore, 
courses and hours of study to see that instruction given at home be 
an equivalent to the instruction given in the public schools. 

Of the high schools, the most important are Gymnaxien aud Iieal<j;/m- 
nasien. As is seen by the following list of studies* and weekly 
divisions of time, the former devote a great deal of attention to the 
classics, the latter to modern languages, natural sciences and mathe- 
matics. As a rule, children must have attained the age of 9 before 
admission to Sexla, the lowest class in Gijmnat<ien and Beahehulen. 

GvMNASIEN. 



Keligion 

Lansuage (Geruiaa) 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

History and geography. 

mathematics 

Natural history 

Physics •. 

Penmanship 

Drawing 

Gymnastics 

Music (vocall 



II. [ III. IV. 



T. 


YI. 


■i 


2 


2 


2 


9 


8 


7 


A 


:i 


:i 


:< 


4 



















2 


2 


34 


34 








VII. 


VIII. 


2 


2 


2 


3 


8 


8 


7 





2 




3 


3 


1 


i 


' " 


' ' "■) 







IX. 



* As given in the report of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1890. 



30 

Eealgymnasien. 





I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


IX. 


Religion 


3 
3 

8 


2 
3 
7 
5 

"3 

2 

4 

2 
2 


2 
3 
7 
6 

"4 
2 

"5 
"2 


2 
3 
6 
i 
4 
i 
2 

'"5 
'2 


2 
3 

6 

4 
4 
4 
2 

"5 




2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
3 
2 
3 

■■'6 

"2 


2 
3 
6 
4 
3 
3 

"3 

2 
5 

'"2 


2 
3 
5 
4 
3 
3 

"3 
2 
5 

'"2 


.J 


Tjaneruae© iGernian) 


3 




5 


French 


4 


Enelish 






Historv and i^eocraDhv 


3 

2 


3 


Natural history 




Physics 


3 






2 


M'tthoniaties 


6 
3 
2 


,5 


Penmanship 






2 








29 


30 


30 


32 


32 


32 


32 


32 


32 



Instruction in gymnastics and singing is given partly or entirely 
outside of these hours. 

In 188G there were 576 public middle schools in Prussia with an 
attendance of 134,937 pupils.* The following is a list of the subjects 
studied with weekly division of time ("Freussische Staiistik 101"): 



Eolision 

Lancuaae (German). 

Arithmetic 

Geumetry 

Natural history 

Physics (chemistry) . 

Geography 

History 

French 

Drawing 

Music 

Gymnastics 



II. 



III. 



IV. 



3 
12 



V. 



3 
12 
6 



VI. 



3 

12 



2 


2 


2 


2 






■» 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


-' 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


32 


32 


32 


28 


24 


24 



There is at least one institution for the blind (Blindenanstall) in each 
province except Hohenzolleru. In Westphalia and Hessen-Nassau 
there are two. The majority are public institutions. There are suffi- 
cient accommodations for the blind of school age for the whole king- 
dom. In 1886, there were 532 children of school age in these asyla. 

In 1886, there were thirty-one insane asyla in Prussia, which cared 
for 1,521 children of school age. In the 170 elementary schools con- 
nected with orphan asyla and houses of correction, 10,119 children of 
school age received instruction in 1886. Insane asyla, orphan asyla 
and houses of correction are not, for the most part, public institutions. 
They come under the jurisiliction of the Minister of Public Instruction 
only in a i-estricted sense. As a rule, sjjecial schools are connected 
with houses of correction only. Orphans attend generally the regular 
elementary schools. 

*Iucluiling also the public secondary schools for girls. lu 1R86. the numberof boysin 
all middle and high schools was 217,190. The number of girls in all secondary schools 
was 137.661. The course of study in secondary schools for girls is from two to three 
years shorter than in the corresponding schools for boys. Many girls are educated in 
foreign countries. Statistics do not include these girls. 

Drs. Schneider and Petorsilie reckon that 207,000 boys as against 155.000 girls receive a 
secondary education. 



31 

Siuce 1788, forty-eight asyla for the deaf and dumb have been 
founded. Thirty-eight of these institutions are public and seven are 
maintained by large societies. In 1886, there were 3,!_)13 children of 
school age in attendance. The deaf and duml) of school age are 
forced to attend these institutions only in the province of Schleswig- 
Holstein. 

3Iay 20, ISSG, Jf,S3S,2Jf7 pupils of school age were in attendance upon 
the public elementary schools, and there were only 299,380 pupils of school 
age in all other schools, pjuhlic and private, which receire children of school age. 

It is my aim to dwell only upon the normal divisions of Prussian 
elementary schools proper, for in these schools the great mass of the 
children of school age receive instruction. We shall, then, have a 
clear idea of the nunimum of work required of each healthy child 
under normal conditions. 



SIXTH CHAPTER. 

Courses of Study ix Prussian ELi'niENTAUV Schools. 

The normal divisions of Prussian elementary schools are as follows: 
1. The school with one teaclier. This is either the (a^ Einklassige 

VoU-sscIiule (ungraded school) or (b) the Hallitagsschule (half-day 

school). 

(a) Einklassige Volksschule. All children of school age receive 
instruction in the same school-room from the same teacher. The 
number of pupils should not exceed eighty. 

The childen of the lowest class have in the rule twenty hours per 
w-eek; those of the middle and upper classes thirty hours, including 
gymnastic exercises for the boys and the manual training for the girls. 

(b) Halbtagsschule. When the number of pupils exceeds eighty, 
or the school-room is too small to accommodate even this number, 
and conditions are not favorable for the ajjpointment of a second 
teacher, with permission of the government, a Ilalbtagsschule (halt-day 
school) may be organized, whose classes together have weekly thirty- 
two hours instruction. 

"2. The schot'l with two teachers. Instruction must be given in separ- 
ate classes. If the number of the pupils exceeds 120, a third class is to 
be formed. In this school, with three classes and two teachers, the 
third class receives twelve hours of instruction weekly, the second class 
twenty-four and the third class twenty-eight. 

3. The school with lliree teachers. In schools of three classes, the 
children of the lowest class receive weekly twenty-two hours of 
instruction; those of the middle class twenty-eight; those of the upj)er 
class thirty-two. 

4. Schools with four or more teachers. ThepuiDils of the lowest classes 
receive weekly twenty-two hours of instruction, those of the middle 
classes twenty-eight, those of the upper classes thirtj'-two. 

In schools with three or more teachers, division of the sexes is 
desirable in the upper classes. In a school with two teachers, the 
organization of two or three classes is preferable to that of two 
ungraded schools where the sexes are divided. 

Where several ungraded schools exist in one locality, it is desirable 
to form a graded school. 



32 

All schools must submit anuually, liefore the beginniug of the school 
year, a course of study to the supervising officers. Tlie elementary 
schools submit their courses of study to the school commissioners 
{Kre.is!icltuli)iKpelio7-en) and local inspectors (LotaMiuliiispektoren), the 
higher schools to the provincial school consistory {Provinzial-Schul- 
oollegium). The work to be accomplished is defined by ministerial 
decrees. This work is here outlined as briefly as possible. Slight 
variations exist in different government districts and modifications 
are made to meet local needs. 



I. Course of Study for Ungraded Schools. 

Einklattsige Volkssch ulen. 

1. The lowest class has twenty hours of instruction weekly, the 
middle class also twenty, the upper class thirty. This time is divided 
as follows:* 



Religious instruction 

Language 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Drawing 

Realien (geography, history and natural 

history) 

Music 

Gymnastics (manual training) 



Lowest 
Class. 



4 
11 

4 




1 




•20 



Middle 
Class. 



5 

10 
4 

1 

6 
2 



30 



Advanced 
Class. 



30 



For division according to the days of the week, consult time-tables 
following the course of study. 

Modifications of these time-tables may be authorized by the local 
school inspector, if they do not affect the total number of hours 
of instruction. Other modifications must be authorized by the 
government. 

2. There should be three divisions of the pupils. The children of 
the lowest division, upon first entering school, must receive six months' 
practice in reading and writing the German script. 

The lowest class embraces the two first years, the middle class the 
three following, the highest class the remaiuing j'ears. 

Reading forms the basis of gradation. The lowest class embraces 
the children who have the Fihel or primer and are learning to read; 
the second class those who are farther advanced but read with some 
difficulty; the first class those who read logically and with facility. 

3. All schools must be supj^lied with the following: First, a copy 
of every text and reference book used in the school; second, a globe; 
third, a wall-map of the home province; fourth, a wall-map of Ger- 
many; fifth, a wall-map of Palestine; sixth, plates for instruction in 
natural history and philosophy; seventh, large alphabets of wood or 

* The time pupils may work outside of school-hours is limited to one hour daily for 
the lowest class, one hour'and one half for the middle class, and two hours for the 
advanced class. 



8H 

of paste-board; eiglitb, a violiu; ninth, a rule and a pair of compasses; 
tenth, a numerical frame; eleventh, bodies for teaching- geometry; 
twelfth, two large blackboards; thirteenth, for Protestant schools, a 
Bible and a copy of the soug-book used in the district. 

In addition to the above, a thermometer, a likeness of the emperor, 
and, in Roman Catholic schools, a crucifix. 

■4. Records. The teacher must keep a school-register, showing the 
daily attendance and weekly progress of the pupils. He must also 
keep a history of his school-district.* The course of study and time- 
table must always be in the school-room. 

5. Text-books, etc. First, the primer and readers; second, the 
primary arithmetic; third, the song-book; fourth, books for religious 
instruction; fifth, a slate, pencil, sponge, rule and compass; si.xth, a 
diary; seventh, a copj'-book. 

tSyllahuK of work. 

Intrnduetory remark: Teaeher.s should carefully prepare themselves for all le.sHons. 
the younger teachers especially with peu in hand. All work of pupils should ho most 
conscientiously controlled. 

a liELiGious Instruction (not tiiven). 

h. LiNGU.uiE WoEK (GekiiunI. The pupils should he tauKht to speak and write cor- 
rectly. Special attention should ho given to letters and common business forms. A 
ta.ste for good reading should be cultivated. 

Lowest J>U'isioii ieleffu liourx) Object teaching. Pupils are led to talk about objects 
which are brought to their notice. The teacher Is to correct, carefully, faulty enuncia- 
tion and incorrect expression. lustrui-tion In reading and writing should follow the 
system taught in the normal school of the district. The alphabet method is absolutely 
forbidden. After six months' instruction pupils should be able to divide simple state- 
ments into words, the words into syllables, and the syllables into their respective sounds. 
They must be able to make and read each letter according to its sound. 

At the close of six months the children are made acquainted with the printed char- 
acters and the names of tiie letters. 

When children learn to read, they should be taught to associate words, and then 
statements, with the objects or idea represented, to prevent thoughtless, mechanical 
reading. 

The pieces read should be thoroughly understood by the pupils. The principal 
thoughts are best brought out by questions on the part of the teacher. 

In addition to short proverbs. ai)horisms. etc.. the pupils should learn by heart some 
short selections from the primer. They should also have practice in repeating, in their 
own words, what they have road. 

The children of this division learn also the Koman printed character". 

In teaching writing, the teacher explains the formation of the letters upon the 
blackboanl. 

Before leaving this third and lowest division, the pupils should be able to read with 
facility, correct enunei.ation and expression the selections they have had. They shi>uld 
be able to answ-er questions as to wh.at they have read : reproduce all selections in their 
own words, and copy correctly from the i)rimer. They should also have had some 
exercise in writing at dictation. 

Midilh- Vlaas {ten Iiuhi-k). Further pra'/tice in reading, with more careful attention to 
subject-matter and expression. 

Writing must now be taken up at llxed hours, the pupils using partly pen and ink. 

Pupils are now to learn the formation of the iduriil of nouns. iStatemeuts are ma<le 
embracing nouns in the singular and idurjil numlters. Pupils learn to recognize and 
employ in statements verbs and adjectives. Next <_^ouie the tieclensions of nouns, with 
the {loflnite and indefluite ,articles, the comparison of adjei'tives. tenses and modes of 
verbs. All this work is taken up very simply. 'ind only through many practical examples. 
Pupils are t.aught to transpose simple sentences, and to recognize the principal parts of 
simple sentences. 

The pupils are now ready for simple work in compiisition. The teacher chooses a 
subject, generally connocteil with school work, writes a short outline upon the black- 
board, and tlie pupils complete the same, Ilrst orally and then in writing. 

Betore promotion to the .advanceil class, pupils should be able tn repeat, in Iheir own 
words, the substance of the sele<'tions they h.ave read ; to read the same with facility, 
both in the German and Roman ch:iracters, to write correctly a simple exercise at dicta- 
tion, and to reproduce in writing, in their own words, any simple selection which has 
been taken up in the class. 

A'teiiiice'l t'liixs ieiohl lioiirx). In reading, about thirty selections annually are studied 
so carefully that the children understand wfdl both form and subject-matter. Pupils 
should be t.iught to teprodnce selections re.ad in correct and logical order. 

A number of poeius. particularly I'o/i-.^/ici/cr, songs of the people, should be learned 
by heart, and repeated until fixed in memory. 

* The reports of the ministry show that these histories often prove valuable in record- 
ing discoveries of antiquities, heathen burial-places, etc. 

.5 



34 

Before leaving tlio school, all pupils should be able to rend readily and understand- 
inelyeven dilllcult itrticlos which, in subject-matter, are not too foreign to their Hue of 
vision. » 

Orthography and puin'tuation are taught by repeated and constant practice in read- 
ing, dictation and composition. Should special faults often occur, the (cacher learus 
thereby to what he should devote moat particularly the attention of the class. 

It is necessary to drill the pupils repeatedly upon words alike in Unm and sound, and 
upon the most common foreign words used in German. This is be.st done by the com- 
position of sentences, showing at the same time both the meaning and the orthography 
of the words in question. 

Fixed hours are appointed for the perfection of the pupils in the German and Latin 
Boript, It is advisable to select tor this purpose proverbs of the people, and ordinary 
business forms. 

Pupils must learn to write neatly, legibly and in good form. Pains must bo taken 
with all written work. 

The different forms of sentences are taught, with special regard to punctuation. 
Pupils are drilled on parts of speech and in the analysis of sentences. 

Examples are taken, so far as possible, from selections the pupils have read. 

Composition, as in the middle class, is eontiuued by exercises in reproduction. Sub- 
jects are chosen connected with the run-indwn. 

The pupils are often asked to write, at the close of a lesson, what has been learned in 
geography, natural history, history of the Fatherland, etc. 

Written solutions of problems in arithmetic are often reiiuired. Letters must be pre- 
pared ready to post. Repeated drill upon ordinary business forms, receipts, notes, etc.. 
is ordered. 

Before graduation, pupils have considerable practice in original composition. 

c. Akithmetic. The pupilsshould acquire a thorough knowledge of practical business 
arithmetic. They must be trained to give reasons for steps in the solution of problems. 
Mechanical work must be avoided. Pupilsshould be most carefully drilled in the system 
of coinage, weights and measures of the mother country. Problems should be practical. 
The teacher should avoid long rows of figures, beyond the comprehension of the pupils, 
and take up only that which will be of use to them in trade or in every-day life. 

In introducing a new process, in all classes mental should precede written work. 

Lowest C'laits I four luntrsl. The figures from one to ten. use of objects, marks, points, 
crosses, etc. The numerical frame. The four fundamental processes from one to 
ten. Gradually extended to too. A great variety of simple problems embracing the 
numbers from one to lOD. 

Middle Claaslfour lioiirs). The figures up to lOOO. The four processes are exercised by 
problems in mental arithmetic up to 1000, especially, however, up to 200. The pupils 
loarn system of coinage, weights and measures. Practice in written work beyond the 
number 1000. 

Adimured Clns^ifoiir hiinrn). Common and decimal fractions. In common fractions, 
children should be drilled particularly in those which come up in every day life (one- 
half to one-twelfth). Special care should be taken in teaching the reduction of common 
to decimal fractions, and this method of solution of problems involviue unusual com- 
mon fractions is recommended. Computations of time, ratio and proportion, percent- 
age, interest, profit and loss, discount, partnership, alligation, area of surfaces and 
contents of solids. 

d. Geometry — Advanced Class {o)ie lioiir). This instruction should be connected with 
drawing ou the one hand and arithmetic on the other. By the former, pupils learn to 
represent correctly lines, surfaces and solids: by the latter, they understand how to com- 
pute the length of lines, the area of surfaces and the contents of solids. 

This instruction should be practical, tending to meet the needs of tradesmen and 
farmers. It should be given in a simple manner. 

The course includes lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, circles and the 
regular solid bodies. 

e. Dkawinc;.' Training of the eye and of the hand, is the object of the course in draw- 
ing. A taste for symmetry, regularity and beauty of form should be developed. 
Instruction should be practical, the aim being to afford assistance to those especially 
who will learn a trade. 

Middle tjlasis [one hour). Drawing begins in the middle class, and consi.sts entirely of 
mechanical work, with the slate, rule and pencil, in copying lines and figures placed upon 
the blackboard by the teacher. 

Adranced Class {two liours). This work is continued with paper and pencil. I he pupils 
now begin tree-hand drawing. The school-room, school-house, play-ground, the home, 
maps of the city or village and district furnish the material for mechanical and free- 
hand drawing. Pupils who have a special talent for drawing should be allowed to push 
their work further than the rest of the class. 

Industrial drawing and space teaching (Kaiuidehre) demand special attention. 

/. Realien. The reolieu include geography, history, and natural history. 

Geooraphy. The children sliould be made acquainted with the home, the Fatherland 
the German Empire and the principal countries of the earth. They learn the position 
of the continents and of the principal heavenly bodies. Instrueti'in in geography is 
prinei|)ally synthetic. It must be studied through representations of the teacher upon 
tlie blackboard, through maps, charts and globes. 

Middle i/lassitiDo hours). Instruction begins in this class with a description of the school- 
house, the home and the district. Next comes the government district, and then the 
province. The pupils learn also the boundaries of the Fatherland, the provinces with 
principal cities, the chief rivers and mountains. 

Adeanied Class {two Imws). Review of what has been learned in the middle class. 
Special attention is now paid to Prussia, the German Empire and Austria. Other 

• The outline liere Kivi-n precociod the general introduction of Stuhlraann's s.vstein, reference to which 
will be found in the second chapter. 



3.-, 

Europoau couutries are next studieil. Papils learn name, position, boumlaries. tlie 
most important rivers, mountains and eities. 

The ijeotjraphical position, boundaries, chief cities, mountains and rivers of other 
important countries of the world are taken up. more especially those countries which. 
throut;h their history, culture or comtuerce, occupy prouiiueut positions. 

In mathematical geography, the following instruction is recommended. 

I. Touching the horizou ; 

■2. Touching represeutations of the earth, and the signillcauco of the most important 
lines and points. 

3. Touching the form aud shape of the earth; 

4. Touching the motions of the earth; 

5. Touching the seasons and zones: 
0. Touching the li.fed stars; 

7. Touching the sun and moon; 

8. Touching the calendar. 

HisTOKV. This instruction includes the history of Prussia ami the Gorman Empire. 

The aim of this instruction is todevelop patriotism and loyalty toward the royal family. 

Instruction in history is given by the teacher in the form of talks. History and geog- 
raphy should go hand in haud. 

Middle I'liims {tirii }ioavf). The children learn the names of the emperor and empress, 
thecrown-priace and the most important men of the day. The teacher relates anecdotes 
of tliese men and remarkable periods of their lives. 

The pupils are next made acquainted with the chief events in the reigns of Frederick 
William IV' and Frederick William III. The great men of these reigns are held up to 
the pupils with their peculiar traits. 

Thereupim the children study some of the most imiiortant events in former reigns 
and in the history of the chief Kixvfiir^tfn. 

Aili'iiiu-i'il (Jla^f {lira lionrs). Instruction is given in the early history of Germany and 
Brandenburg. Here only the most remarkable events are touched upon. From the time 
of the Thirty Years' War. however, instruction is systematic and connected. 

In addition to the above, some of the most important inventions and dis.-overies both 
in ancient and modern times are taken up. 

Natural History. The aim of this instruction is to acquaint the children with those 
phenomena in nature which are daily before their eyes. It is one of the most important 
duties of the teacher to awaken an iuterest in nature, to train the powers of observation, 
that the pupils see how much cau.se for reflection is given by her products and the 
workings of her forces. 

This instruction in natural history should follow the object method. Practical experi- 
ments, when possible, are to be most highly commended. 

The middle aud advanced classes receive together two hours a week of instruction in 
natural history. 

Afittil.li> I'la^s {one hour). In summer, the children learn some of the important plants 
of the garden, the fields and the woods. In teaching, the teacher should have before 
him the plant itself or a good representation of the same. 

lu the winter, the children study some of the Mammnlin and -t res-, usually the domestic 
animals. 

A few minerals of the district are taken up. 

.biraiicnf CVns.s ionp hour). Physiology .and hygiene. The structure of the human 
body and the fundamental laws of health. Knowledge of plants, animals and minerals 
is extended. 

In the vegetable kingdom, the most important are fruit trees, grains and the ordinary 
vegetables used for food. Useful trees, shrubs, herbs and poisonous plants are studied. 
Growth and conditions of growth of plants require attention, as do also the cultivation 
aud fertilization of the fleld. 

Foreign and domestic products, such as cotton, tea. eofTee and sugar, should be studied. 

The proper division of the vegetable kingdom for the elementary schools is into 
il) trees. CJI shrulis. (3) herbs. (4) grasses. (.5) mushrooms. (6) mosses. 

The animals studied by the children are brought under the following classiflcation: 
(1) mammalia. ('21 aves.Ci) amphibia, (il Hshes, (5) insects, (61 worms, (7) mollusks, (8) infu- 
soria. Foreign words are seldom used in classification. 

The animals worthy of special consideration are those useful or dangerous to man ; 
those which by size, construction or pHouliarities awaken a high degree of interest. 
Examples — the butterfly, bee, ant. tape-worm, trichina. 

MidtUf (Jhixisloiii' liour). In nature the pupils take up the most important peculiarities 
of air. heat, w.ater. vapor, fog. rlouds, dew, frost, rain, snow, hail, ice and storms. 

The pra<'tical application of natural forces is considered, as in ihe gun, pumps, etc. 

Adfaiict'd iJI'd^alDnt' liour). In this division are studied the baromeier. fountains and 
water-contluct ; the ear. echo, musical instruments; the thermometer, steam engine, 
manufacture of gas; the effects of light and shade; colors, the mirror, the buruing- 
glass, eye-glass, the eye aud sight, the rainbow; the pully, the lever, the scales, 
gravitation. 

Electricity and magnetism are taught in connection with the most common applica- 
tions of these forces. Pupils are given a general idea of the electric telegraph. All this 
work is to be treated by the object method in a simple manner. 

II. Music. Vocal music is an important factor in education. It ennobles character 
by cultivating a taste for that which is beautiful. The pupil takes with him into lib^ a 
cumber of songs, whi'-h will not only be a source of pleasure to him through life, but 
will .also tend to lessen the influence of corrupt popular songs upon the general public. 
With this end in view, the greatest care should be taken in the selc-tion of the songs to 
be learned in school. The preference should be given to those songs which awaken a 
love of the Fatherland. 

Luinefl iHafx ioni- hoar). E.xerei.ses to train the voice and ear. The children learn to 
sing after tlie teacher distinct tones in the middle register to the difl'erent vowels. The 



m 

pentachord, botb risluK and falliue. is practiced to various texts. The te.xt of soncs i.s 
read aloud by the toacher ami explained. The pupils then loarn the same by heart. A 
tew simple songs should be well studied in this division. 

Middle and Adeanred iHas.-n/s itiro hours). Continuation of the above. Diphthongs are 
practiced In different pitches. Then foMow vowels and diphthongs in connection with 
consonants, next syllables and words. The pentachord is extended to the scale. The 
chord of three and four notes is presented iu different keys. 

From twenty to thirty sones are practiced in addition to the religious music. Songs 
are sung in unison aiid by ear. Singing by note and in two parts can only be practiced 
under especially favorable conditions. A secular or religious song should begin or 
close all school sessions. In this way songs are best fixed in the memory of the pupils. 

h. Gymnastics (("'ij liDurs). 

Middle and Adrani'ed Olasfn's. 

1. Exercises upon the horizontal bar, and in standing. 

2. Exercises with a stick ; high .lumping. 

3. Exercises in drilling, and upon the parallel bars. 

4. Exercises in hopping, and upon the horizontal bar. 
6. Exercises in walking, and in broad jumping. 

6. Exercises in running, and upon the parallel bars. 

Simple gymnastic exercises for the lowest class should be given in the pauses. 

I. M.iNUAL Tk.uniNi: for THE GiBLS [two lionrs). Middle and Adeanred Classes. The 
end of this instruction is to fit the girls for domestic life. Industry should be encour- 
aged, and a taste for neatness in personal appearance and economy in clothing. The 
following should be taught; 

a. Knitting. Pupils should learn to do all work of this kind reciuired iu ordinary 
domestic life. 

6. Sewing. Pupils should learn the different plain stitches and patching. 

c. Easy work in sewing and stitching articles of clothing, etc. outlining, darning. 

d. More difficult work iu sewing and stitching articles of clothing, the cutting of 
linen. 

Fancy stitches should not be taught in the elementary schools. Practical plain sewing 
is the aim of the course. With this end in view the children should repair and make 
articlesof clothing underthedirectionof the teachers, bringing the necessary materials 
from home. 

It is not enough for the teacher to show how a thing is to be done. The pupils' work 
must be carefully controlled, and they must be taught the technical terms necessary to 
express intelligently what they are doing. 

Local school authorities decide as to the necessity of instruction upon the sewing- 
machine. 

The teacher should keep a record of the work done by pupils * 

* There are many manuals of industrial work for girls. That of Agnes Schallenfeld, published in Frank- 
furt^on-tbe-Main, is in (luito general use. 



37 



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38 

n. The Halbtagsschule (The Half-day School). 

As previously stated, these schools are permitted only iiuder excep- 
tional circurastances, that is, when the number of pupils exceeds 
eighty or the school accommodations are not sufficient for eighty 
pupils in one room, and conditions are not favorable for the appoint- 
ment of a second teacher. 

The two classes in these half-day schools receive together thirty- 
two hours a week of instruction. This time is divided as follows: 



Hieber 
Class. 



Keligious histruction 

Language, realieu* 

Arithmetic, geometry 

Music 

Drawing. 

Gymnastics 




In addition to the above, two hours a week are devoted to the 
manual training for girls. 

The course of study for ungraded schools is followed as closely as 
the limited time will permit. 



III. Course of Study for Schools with Two Departments. 

1. For the Primary Department: 

a. Lower Class, twenty-two hours per week. 

b. Higher Class, twenty-eight hours per week. 

2. For the Advanced Department: 

a. Lower Class, twenty-eight hours per week. 

b. Higher Class, thirty-two hours per week. 
This time is to be divided as follows: 





Pkimaky Depabtment. 


Advanced Department. 


Lower 
Class. 


Higher 

Class. 


Lower 
Class. 


HiKher 
Class. 


a. Religious instruction 

b. Language 

<•. Aritiimetic 


4 
11 

4 





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2 


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4 

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2 


4 
8 
4 
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2 

C 
2 

2 


4 
8 
4 


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2 


('. Drawing 


2 


/. Realien (history, geography, 
natural history) 


8 


f/. Music 

/(. Gymnastics, manual training 


2 
2 




22 


28 


28 


32 



"The realipn embrace geography, history and natural history. 



Instruction is to be given according to time-tables. The local 
school inspector (LokahcJudinsjieMor) can authorize changes in time- 
tables which do not alter the total number of hours; other changes must 
be authorized by the government. 

Pupils are divided into classes, according to progress, as follows: 

Primary Department. The lower class has two divisions; at fii'st, in 
arithmetic and reading, three divisions. These are the children of 
the lirst and second years. The higher class in the primary depart- 
ment is composed of the children of the third year. 

Advanced Department. The lower class is composed of the children 
of the fourth and fifth years. The higher class is made ujj of the 
sixth, seventh and eighth years, with two subdivisions in grammar 
and arithmetic. 

For use in teaching, the following are necessary. 

1. In the primary department: 

a. A 3opy of each text and reference book useil in the department; 

/'. Large wooden or paste-board alphaliets for teaching reading; 

'". A numerical frame; 

(I. A wall map of the home province; 

e. Charts for use in teaching natural history; 

/". Rule and compass; 

,'/. Two large blackboards. 

2. In the advanced department : 

a. A copy of each text and referen(;e book used in the school; 

/). A globe; 

r. A wall map of Germany; 

(/. A wall map of Europe; 

e. A \.all map of Palestine; 

f. A wall map of the home province; 

g. Plates for use in teaching natural history; 
/(. A violin; 

i. Rule and compass; 
j. Bodies for use in teaching geometry; 
k: Two large blackboards. 
In Protestant schools, a bible and a copy of the song book used in 
the district. 

There must be a thermometer in each class-room, a likeness of the 
Emperor, and in Romish schools, a crucifix. 

Teachers' Records — The teacher must keej) a school register, show- 
ing daily attendance and weekly progress of pupils. The principal 
must keep also a history of the school district. 

The time-tables and course of study for the year must always l)e in 
each school-room. 

The following are the necessary books and stationery: 

(1) The primer and readers; 

(2) Arithmetic?; 
(.3) Song book; 

(4) Books for religious instruction; 

(5) Slate, pencil, sponge, rule and compass; 

(6) Blank books for use as 

a. Diary; 

h. Copy book (for penmanship); 

c. Coj^y book (for orthograjihy and language exercises); 

(I. Drawing book (for the ujDper clfisses). 



•10 

Lessons should be carefully prejiared by each teacher. 
Younger teachers should use pen or pencil in this preparation. All 
work of pupils should be conscientiously regulated and supervised. 

Syllabus of wort. 

a. Religious Instruction (not given). 

/). Language. Correct oral and written expression of thouerhts wtiicli enter into the 
life of tlie people, aod ability to read eood literature witli prollt are the aims of 
laiisnaee work. Special atteatiou sh.juld Ije paid to ordinary business tonus. 
I'HiMARY Department. 

l.DiiM'r Ijtass Wlepfii lioars). Object method. The pupils are led to talk of objects 
within their line of vision. The powers of observation are trained by study of objects 
iu their vicinity. School, play-ground, garden. Held, forest and home afford a great 
variety in the material fur this instruction. 

Enuiiui.'ition and expression receive attention. 

Ill teaching reading and writing, the method of the normal school of the district is to 
be followed The alphabet method is strictly forbidden. 

.\t the close of the first six mouths, the pupils must be able to divide simple state- 
ments into words, the words into syllables, the syllables Into their respective sounds. 
They must be able to make and read the letters representing these sounds. 

.\t the close of the first six months the pupils learn the printed characters and the 
names of the letters of the alphabet. 

From the outset, to prevent mechanical reading, children should be taught to associate 
words, and. later, statements with the objects or ideas they represent. 

Each selection read must be thoroughly understood by the pupils. 

Simple provei bs, aphorisms and short easy selections should be learned by heart, and 
rejieatedly reviewed. 

In teaching writing, the te.acher should show upon the blaekbo.ard the formation of 
the letters. 

Orthography is encouraged through careful attention to enunciation, attentive read- 
ing, copying and dictation. 

From the very beginning, children, in writing, should be taught to use the proper 
punctuation. 

At the close of the second school year, the children should be able to read with facility 
and correctness the selections they have taken ; to answer simple questions as to sub- 
ject-matter: to reproduce these selections orally ; to copy correctly from the primer and 
to write from memory the proverbs and sayings learned by heart. They should have 
had simple exercises in dictation. 

Higher ('lasn Wiglit hours). In this class the reader for middleelasses is used. 

The instruction of the lower class is continued, with closer attention to subject- 
matter and expression. 

Pupils are led to reproduce or.ally, selections read. At first they will confine themselves 
(luite closely to the words of the book. The teacher, by judicious questioning, will force 
pupils to express themselves more or less iu their own words. 

Selections in prose and poetry are to Be learned by heart. 

Orthography is continued as in the lower class. 

Special attention is now given to 

1. The use of capital letters; 

■2. The shortening and lengthening of vowels : 

'i. The Unlaiitiutg : 

4. Hard and soft consonants at the beginning of words and syllables : 

6. The finding of final consonants through lengthening words ; 

6. The use of the letters (. th, dt; f, t\ ph. pf: ,r. i7i.s, <■/.■,<, gs. ts, z. 

Iu writing, the forms of the German script alph.abet are now taught in regular order. 
The pupils learn the comparative size and position of letters, the proper distance 
between letters .and between words. Time writing is then practiced in concert. 

The formation of the plural of nouns is taught. Statements are formed with personal 
pronouns and verbs in the present tense, and, afterward, in the past and future teu.ses. 
Adjectives are studied in the same way. 

Woid-building. effectof afBxing the syllables rhen. tein, er, and in to nouns; ig. Hcli and 
i.fcli to adjectives; of prefixing the syllable un to adjectives. 
Advanced Department. 

/.()»!«■ Class [eight }i<mrs). The pupils read the more difflcult selections of the middle- 
class reader. Correct expression and a thorough understanding of the subject-matter 
are required. Pupils have now acquired the ability to reproduce selections from reader 
orally with facility, and to repeat readily that which has been learned by heart. 

For practice in orthography, the selections learned by heart are written from memory 
and corrected by book. Simple rules are learned. 

Writing is continued .as above. 

Pupils learn to compare adjectives .and to form the indicative and imperative modes 
of verbs. They are drilled in the declension of nouns with and without definite and 
indefinite articles. All the work should be practical, the pupils forming statements 
and simple sentences introducing the various forms of words desired. Sentences are 
transposed, and the subjunctive mode is introduced. 

Word building is continued. Words not understood by the pupils are best defined by 
practical examples, i. e.. the teacher forms sentences introducing such words. 

The pupils learn the parts of a simple sentence. 

The pupils reproduce in writing short stories told by teacher, selections from the 
reader, etc. 

Closer attention is given to form and style of oral expression. Composition receives 
attention. An effort is made to teach pupils to express themselves in writing correctly 



41 

aud dearly. At first the teacher places outlines upon the blackboard. Little by little 
these outlines disappear, and the pui>ils are led to depend more and more upon them- 
selves, after teacher has explained orally the work recjuired of them. 

Jltglii-r (Uns^ {eight hours). The reader for advanced classes is now studied. At least 
thirty selections are mastered yearly. The first step toward the proper uuderstandint; 
of a selection lies in reading same aloud faultlessly and in speaking upon its subject- 
matter. The greatest care must be given to correct expression. 

Oral reproduction exercises are continued with greater strictness, the teacher ever 
requiring more and more of the pupils. 

A number of poems, especially songs of the people, are learned by heart. 

Hefore leaving school, the pupils should be able to read understandingly the more 
dilticult selections, which, in subject matter, are not too far above them. They should 
be able to express clearly and correctly the subject-matter of such selections. 

Keading and the other language exercises should enable the pupils to spell and 
punctuate correctly. Should the same faults often occur, the teacher must devote 
special attention thereto. Words alike in sound and foreign words in common use 
demand special drill. 

In penmanship the German and Latin scripts are practiced at stated hours. Proverbs 
iinil n.iyings of the people servo as copies. 

I'upils must learn to write neatly and legibly. 

The different forms of sentences are studied with reference to punrtuation ; parts of 
spi-ech; the formation and use of participles; the declension of adjectives with and 
without definite and indefinite articles: the declension of pronouns: prepositions and 
their uses: government of verbs and ailjectives: conjugation of verbs: analysis of 
sentences: direct and indirect discourse: word-building. 

All the work is introduced and practiced with practical examples. 

In composition the reproduction exercisesarei-ontinued and short themesare written 
on familiar subjects. Pupils are often asked, at the close of a lesson in natur.-d histi>ry. 
geography, the history of the Fatln'rlaml and religion, to write what they have learned. 

Careful attention is paid to ordinary business forms, letters, bills, notes, recei|its. eti'. 
Letters are prepared ready to post. 

All written work should bo done neatly. 

c. Akixhmetic. The pupils should accjuiro a thorough knowledge of practical busi- 
ness arithmetic. They must be trained to give reasons for steps in the solution of 
problems. Jlechanical work must lie excluded. Pupils should be mostcarefullydrillcd 
in the (lerman coinage, weights .and measures. Limg rows of figures beyond the com- 
prehension of the pupils should be avoided, aud attention paid to that which will be of 
use to pupils in trade or in every-day life. 

In introducing new processes mental should precede written work in all classes. 
Primary Department. 

Lotrer Class, Second DivisionAfnio- hours). Oiijeet teaching. The numbers from one 
to ten. Use of a variety of objects, marks, linos, crosses, etc. The numerical frame. 
The four fundamental processes from one to ten. 

Loirer Class, First I)ivision Ifoiir hours). Numbers one to too. A variety of siniplo 
problems, embracing these numbers. 

Iliilher Class [four hours). The numbers up to loou. The tour processes are exercised 
by problems in mental arithmetic up to lOOii. especially, however, up to 200. Coinage, 
weights and measures. 

Advanced IJErARTJiENT. 

Loiri-r I'lassi.four lionrs'. A careful review of the work of the three preceding years. 
Practice in written work beyond the number looo. The mental and written solution of 
a variety of simple problems in tlie four processes. 

/fifjhir Class, .Second Virisiini [four hours). Common and decimal fractions. The drill 
in common fractions should be couflned quite closely to those fractions which occur in 
common business transactions (one-halt to one-twelfth). Special care should be taken 
in te.'Kdiing the reduction of common to decimal fractions, and this solution of problems, 
involving unusual common fractions, is recommended. 

First Dirisioii {four hours). Computation of time, ratio and proportion, percentage, 
interest, discount, profit and loss, alligation, area of surfaces and contents of solids. 

d. Geometry. 
Advanced Department. 

Higher Class {two hours). This instruction should be connected with drawing on the 
one hand and arithmetic on the other. By the former pupils learn torepresentcorrectiy 
lines, surfaces and solids : by the latter they understand how to compute the length of 
lines, the area of surfaces aud the contents of solids. 

This instruction should be practical to meet the needs of tradesmen and farmers. 

The course includes lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, circles and the 
regular solids, 

e. 1>rawing.* Training of the eye and hand is the object of this course. A taste for 
symmetry, regularity and beauty of form should be cultivated. Instruction should be 
pr.ictical, the aim being to afford assistance to those espei'ially who will learn a trade. 

Primary Department. 

Higher Class {ttro hours). Drawing begins in this class .and consists of mechanical 
work, with slate, rule and pencil, in copying lines and figures dr.awn upon the black- 
board by the teacher. Lines of different length and position, triangles andquadrangli>s 
are drawn, then simple objects, as table, chair, desk. etc. 
Advanced Department. 

Loiri'r <_'lass{tu-o liours). The above work is continued, partly with paper and pencil. 
I'lipils now commence free-hand drawing, continuing mechanical drawing. Lines and 
angles are drawn and then divided into a given number of equal parts. Parallelograms 
aud simple geometrical figures are drawn. 

' Ttie outline here given preceded (he general introduction of Stuhbuann's system, reference to wliieb will 
l)e found in the second chapter. 



42 

Highn- Class {two Iiours). Free-hand drawine is continued, and pupils with a special 
talent for this work are permitted to eo further than the others. Industrial drawing, 
however, is the most important. The school-room, school-house, play-eround, the 
home, maps of the city or village and district furnish the material for both mechanical 
and free-hand drawing. 

The close relation l)Btwoen the instruction in drawing and geometry { llanmleln-f-) 
should never l>e lost sight of. 

/. Eealien. The llealii'n include geography, history and natural history. 

Geoghaphy. The children should he made acquainted with Ihe home, the Fatherland, 
the German Empire and the principal countries of the earth. They study the continents 
and the principal heavenly bodies. The instruction is largely synthetic and must bo 
given through representations of the teacher upon the blackboard, through maps, 
charts and globes. 

Primary Depabtment. 

Highfr Class {two Iiours). Instruction begins in this class with a description of the 
school-house, the home and the district. Next comes the government district, and then 
the province. Pupils study elementary geographical charts. 
Advanced Department. 

Lower I'lass [tiro lioms). Continuation of above, with more detailed description oi the 
government district and province. Pupils learn the boundaries of the Fatherland, the 
provinces, with their principal cities, the chief rivers and mountains. 

Higher Glass Itwo liours). Special attention is now paid to Prussia, the German 
Empire and Austria. Other European countries are next studied. Pupils learn name, 
geographical position, boundaries, the most important rivers, mountains and cities. 

The geographical position, boundaries, chiet cities, mountains and rivers of other 
import.int countries of the world are taken up. more especially tho."e which, through 
their history, culture or commerce, demand especial attention. 

In mathematical geography the following instruction is recommended; 

1. Touching the horizon : 

2. Touching representations of the earth, and the siguiflcance of the most important 
lines and points: 

3. Touching the form and shape of the earth : 

4. Touching the motions of the earth ; 

5. Touching the seasons and the zones ; 

6. Touching the fixed stars ; 

7. Touching the sun and moon ; 

8. Touching the calendar. 

History. This instruction includes the history of Prussia and the German Empire. 

The aim of this instruction is to develop patriotism and loyalty toward the roy.al 
family. 

Instruction in history is given by the teacher in the form of talks. History and 
geography should go hand in hand. 
Primary Department. 

Higher Class Cu-o Itours). The children learn the names of the emperor and empress. 
the crown-prince, and the most important men of the day. The teacher relates anec- 
dotes of these men and important events in their lives. 

The pupils are next made .acquainted with the chief events in the reigns of Frederick 
William IV and Frederick William III. The great men of these reigns are held up to 
the pupils, with their peculiar traits. 
Advanced Department. 

Jlotli Dirisions together Itn-o liours). The pupils study a few of the important events in 
the early history of Germany and Brandenburg. From the time of the Thirty Years' War 
instruction is systematic and connected. 

In addition to the above, some of the most important inventions and discoveries, both 
in ancient and modern times, are taken up. 

Natur.al History. The aim of this instruction is to acquaint the children with those 
phenomena in nature which are daily before their eyes. It is one of the most important 
duties of the teacher to awaken an interest in nature, to train the powers of observation, 
that the pupils see how much cause for reflection is given by her products and the 
workings of her forces. 

This instruction in natural history should follow the object method. Practical experi- 
ments, when possihle, are strongly recommended. 
Primary Departjient. 

Higher Class {tiro Iiours). The pupils learn some of the important plants of the garden, 
the Helds and the woods. The teacher should have before him the plant itself or a good 
representation thereof. In the winter the children study some of the mammalia and aves. 
usually the domestic animals. 
Advanced Department. 

Lower Glass (two hours). Ivnowledge of plants, mammalia and aves is extended. In 
summer a few insects are studied; also amphibia and ttshes. Attention is now given 
to the manner of living of the animals studied. The growth of plants and their uses 
are talked of. Peculiarities in the foims of plants and the bodies of animals are 
described. 

A few minerals of the district receive attention. 

Higher Class Uu-o hours). Physiology and hygiene. The structure of the human body 
and the fundamental laws of health. Ivnowledge of plants, animals and minerals is 
extended. Useful trees, shrubs, herbs and poisonous plants are studied. Growth and 
conditions of growth. The cultivation and fertilization of the field. 

Foreign and domestic products, such as cotton, tea, coffee and sugar should be 
studied. 

The proper division of the vegetable kingdom for the elementary schools is into (1) 
trees. (2) shrubs. 13) herbs. U) grasses, (.^) mushrooms, (6) mosses. 

The animals are brought under the following classifications: 

(1) mammalia. 12' aves. (:i) amphibia, (4) fishes, (6) insects, (6) worms, 17) mollusks, (8) 
infusoria. Foreign words are seldom used in classifications. 



43 

Mammalia and aves (lomaiid special attention, much less amphibia and fishes The 
insects are also important. Animals useful or dan«orous to man those which, by size 
or peculiarities, awaken a high degree of interest should be studied. 

Home minerals alone are studied. 

ff^aAerTvns.s ufo^^'Xr'ln nature the pupils take up the A'u.PO^ant peculiarities of 



air heat water vapor, fog, clouds, dew. frost, rain, suow, hail.. ice and storms. 

The prartS'aifplication of natural forces is cousidored, as in the gun. pumps, etc 

Next require attention the barometer, fountains and water conduits; the ear c,. lo 
and musical instruments: the thermometer, steam engine, manufacture of gas; the 
e fect^ of 1 ght .and T^hade colors, the minor, the burning glass, eye glasses, the eye 
and sghtth" rain-bow; the pullev, the lever, the scales, gravitation. 

The ordinary applications of electricity and magnetism are taken up. Pupils are 
given a general idea of the elertric telegraph. . „„„,„ 

All thiS work is to be treated by the ohiect method in ajJimple nianner. 




erencrshouM be gi/enl'^thoVe which foster a iSve of the Fatherland. 

/0^r™5"a<^?(omW™rrExercise8 to train the voice and env The children learn to 
sing after the teacher dstinct tones in the middle register to the different vowels. The 
pZtaclmrd bote risYng and falling is practiced to various texts. ^ few simple soiigs 
if nos'iible within the -ompass of the pentachord, are practiced. Ihe text ot songs i^ 
read aloud by the t.°icher and explained.. The.pupils then learn thesame by heart. A 
frtw yimt)Ift fione° should be hiiirned in tLiis> division. ^. , , i- i • 

T/;«™rJ^;n.?°f/.rX„rs Continuation ot the above. Diphthongs are practiced in 
dilTereut pitches. Then follow vowels and diphthongs in connection with consonants, 
then syllables and words. 

irmvM^SSytS"-!^.'' Continuation with special reference to purity. Ilexibility ami 
correct tone CO or The pentachord is extended to the scale. The chord of three and 
four note "fsprSented in diflerent keys. The pupils learn about twenty-five secular 

''"l}igh!^,'^\Zl!7'^o hour,). Continuation ot above. The. more difficult intervals, the 
minor chord of; three and tour notes and a few songs in minor keys are practiced, 
"cales ami chords of three and four notes in different keys receive attenti.on. Pupils 
a^fmiVrecaretulir drilled in the singing of songs. Tney .learn a,bov.tthiry secular 
and nulioursongs Singing is in unison, though part singing is not excluded. If 
fnstruS hasTe^en given systematically from I''" Q^^'- '' Y'" ^f P^^'*'''^ f^-" "'« 
pupils to obtain some knowledge of notation and also learn to sing by note. 

''■praM-vKYDEPAKTMENT Uwu hours). Simple gymnastic exercises in preparation for 

the 

Advanced Department ((»io /io7H-.'i). The boys have 

(II Exercises in standing and upon the horizontal bar: 

(2) Exercises with a stick, high jumping; 

Ci) Exercises in drilling, and upon the parallel bars: 

(1) Exercises in hopping, and upon the horizontal bar. 

(51 Exercises in walking, and in broad jumping; 

(6) Exercises in running, and upon the»parallel bars. , ^ ..i ■ - * *• . * 

/ Manual TKAiNiNG for the Giels itiro hunrat. The end of this instruction i» to 
fit the giris for domestic lite. Industry should be encouraged,, and a taste for neatiiess 
n personal appearance and economy in clothing. The fol.lowmg should be taught. 

aKnittng Pupils should be able to do all work of this kind retjuired in ordinary 

'^T'slw'iug." i>upils should learn the different plain stitches and patching : 
c Easy work in sewing and stitching articles of clothing, etc., outlining, darning ; 
d,.Moro difficult work in sewing and stitching articles of ■•lothing. etc.. the cutting 

° Fancy stitches should not bo taught in the elementary schools Practical plain sew- 
ing is the aim of the course. With this end in view, the children should repair and 
make articles of clothing under the direction ot the teacher, bringing the neces.sary 

Tt'fs'not^enough'"orth6 teacher to show how a thing is to be done. The work of pupils 
must bo carefully controlled, and they must be taught the technical terms necessary to 

TJcaf SifaSth^.dUeld"^;drisrtL advisability o( instruction upon the sewing 
The teacher should keep a record ot the work done by the pupils. 

IV. The School with Three Classes and Two Teachers.* 
When, in a school with two classes and two teachers, the number 
of pupils exceeds 120, a third class is to be formed^ 

* The course of study tor schools with two classes and two teachers is followed as 
closely as circumstances permit. 



44 

The third class has twelve hours' instruction weekly; the second 
class twenty-four, and the first class twenty-eight. This time is divided 
as follows: 





Third 
Class. 


Second 
Class. 


First 
Class. 


Religious instruction 


2 

7 

1 - 




1 



t 

4 
1 
4 
1 
2 


4 


Language 


8 


Arithmetic 




Geometry 


f) 


Drawing 


1 


Realien (geography, history and natural history).. 
Music 


6 
2 


Gymnastics, manual training 


2 








12 


24 


28 



Ijrogress in 



Instruction should follow the time-table. Changes not affecting 
the number of hours may be authorized by the local school inspector 
(Lokahchubntipekior). Other alterations must be authorized by the 
government. 

The children are divided into classes according to 
studies. 

The third class embraces the children of the first school year; the 
second class, those of the second, third, and fourth school years; the 
first class, children of the four following years. 

There should be two divisions of the first and second classes. 

Teachers must have the following articles: 

(1) In the third class. 

a. A copy of the j)rimer used in the school; 

h. Alphabetical charts for use in teaching reading; 

c. A numerical frame; 

d. A rule; 

e. A large portable blackboard. 

(2) In the second class : 

a. A copy of each book used in the class; 
h. A wall map of Palestine; 

c. A wall map of the home province; 

d. Natural history charts; 

e. Kule and compass; 

f. Two large portable blackboards. 

(3) In the first class: 

a. A copy of each book used in the class; 

b. A globe; 

c. A wall map of Germany; 

d. A wall map of Europe ; 

e. A wall map of Palestine; 
/. Natural history charts; 

;/. A violin; 

h. A rule and comi^ass; 

i. Bodies for use in teaching geometrj*; 

j. Two large portable blackboards. 



In Protestant schools : 
k. A Bible; 
I. A copy of the song-book used in the district. 

Each class-room must be furnished witli a thermometer, a likeness 
of the Emperor, and Roman Catholic schools with a crucifix. 

Teachers' Records. Each teacher must keep a register, showing 
daily attendance and weekly progress of pupils. The principal is to 
keep a history of the school district. The course of study and time- 
table for each class must be kept constantly in each class-room. 

Books, etc. The pupils of this school require 

(1) The primer and readers; 

(2) The primary arithmetic; 

(3) Song-books; 

(4) Books for religious instruction; 

(.5) Slate, pencil, sponge, rule and a pair of compasses; 
({)) Blank books: 

a. Diary; 

b. Copy book; 

c. Composition book; 

d. Drawing book. 

V. The School wrru Three Classes and Three Teachers. 

The third class has twenty-two hours' instruction weekly; the second 
class has twenty-eight hours' instruction weekly; the first class has 
thirty-two hours' instruction weekly. 

The time is divided as follows : 



Religious instruction 

Language 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Drawing 

Realion (geography, history and natural history) 

Music 

Gymnastics, manual training 





Third 
Class. 


Second 
Class. 


First 

Class. 




Hours. 

11 

4 


"1 
(1 
1 
2 


Hours. 
4 

8 
4 



2 


2 
2 


Hours. 
4 




8 




4 




2 




2 


).. 


8 
'2 




2 








22 


28 


32 



The third class embraces children of the first and second years. 

The second class embraces children of the third, fourth and fifth 
years. 

The first class embraces children of the sixth, seventh and eighth 
years. 

The regulations touching books, etc., for pupils and teachers, teach- 
ers' records, etc., are the same as those for schools with three classes 
and two teachers. 



VI. The School with Fouk Departments. 
The fourth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; the 
third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; the second 



46 

class has tweuty-eight hours of instruction per week; the first class 
has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. 
This time is divided as follows: 



Religious instruction 

Language 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Drawing 

Kealien (geography, history, natural his- 
tory) 

Music 

Gymnastics, manual training 



Fourth 


Third 


Second 


Clasa. 


Class. 


Class. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


4 


4 


4 


11 


8 


8 


4 


4 


4 


U 











2 


2 





G 


G 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


28 


28 



First 
Class. 



Hours. 



4 



32 



Each class has a two years' course, and is composed of two divisions. 
The regulations governing teachers' records, etc., books, etc., for 
teachers and isupils are the same as in other schools. 



VII. The School with Five Departments. 

The fifth class has twenty- two hours of instruction per week; 
The fourth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; 
The third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; 
The second class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; 
The first class has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. 
This time is divided as follows: 



Religious instruction 

Language . . : 

Arithmetic 

Geometry 

Drawing 

Realien (geography, history, nat- 
ural history) 

Music 

Gymnastics (manual training) 



Fifth 


Fourth 


Third 


Second 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Class. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


Hours. 


4 


4 


4 


4 


11 


11 


8 


8 


4 


4 


4 


4 




















2 


2 








6 


6 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


22 


28 


28 



Firf't 
Class. 



Hours. 



32 



The fifth and fourth classes have each a course of ouc year. 

The third, second and first classes have each a course of two years. 

The three upper classes have each two divisions. 

Regulations are the same as for other schools, touching school 
furniture, teachers' records, books and supplies for teachers and 
l)U2)ils. 



47 

VIII. The School with Sis Classes. 

The sixth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; 

The tifth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; 

The fourth class has twenty-eight liours of instruction per week; 

The third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; 

The second class has thirty hours of instruction per week; 

The first class has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. 

This time is divided as follows: 

1. In the sixth and tifth classes: Horns. 

Religious instruction 4 

Language 11 

Arithmetic 4 

Music 1 

Gymnastics (manual training) 2 

22 

"2. In the fourth and third classes: 

Religious instruction 4 

Language y 

Arithmetic 4 

Drawing 2 

Realien (geography, history and natural history) i 6 

Music " '. 2 

Gymnastics (manual training) 2 

3. In the second class: 

Religious instruction 4 

Language 8 

Arithmetic 4 

Drawing 2 

Realien (geography, history and natural history) fS 

Music 2 

Gymnastics (manual training) 2 

~30 

4. In the first class: 

Religious instruction 4 

Language 8 

Arithmetic 4 

Geometry 2 

Drawing 2 

Realien (geography, history and natural history) S 

Music 2 

Gymnastics (manual training) 2 

The children of the sixth, fifth, fourth and third classes are those 
of the first, second, third and fourth school years. The course is one 
year in each class. The children of the second and first classes are 
those of the fifth and sixth, the seventh and eighth school years. 
The course is two years in each class. 



-18 



There are two divisions in each of the two upper classes. 
Regulations touching school furniture, supplies, teachers' records, 
etc., are the same as those in other schools. 

IX. Table Showing the Relative Distribution of Peu.ssian Elementary 
Public Schools in 18S().* 





Number of 
pupils. 


Per cent. 


I. Ungraded schools- .... 


1,146,602 
571,474 
415,116 
486, 772 
277,015 

1,941,268 


23 70 


II. Half-day schools {Halbtagtischulen) 

III. Schools with two classes and two teachers... . . . 

IV. Schools with three classes and two teachers. . . . 

V. Schools with three classes and three teachers. . 
VI. Schools with four or more classes 


11.81 

8.. '•.8 
10,06 

5.73 
40 12 








4,838,247 


100.00 



Sixty-four thousand seven hundred and fifty regular teachers were 
employed; 57,902 were males, 6,848 were females f In New York 

public schools in I88G, 31,325 teachers were employed; 5,952 were 
males, 25,373 were females. 

Division or the School Children According to Sex. 

Boys 2,422,044 

Girls 2,416,203 

Total 4,838,247 

In Mixed Classes. 

Boys 1,766,807 

Girls 1,745;343 

Total 3,512,150 

In Classes or Boys 655 , 237 

In Classes of Girls 670 , 860 

Total 4,838,247 

Division of Children According to Religion. 

Protestant {evanr/eiit^ch) 3 , 062 , 856 

Roman Catholic \k-alhohseh) 1 , 730 , 402 

Other Christian denominations {sont^t chiiatlicli) 9,569 

•Jewish {jadm-h) 35,420 

Total 4,838,247 



Eleven and eighty-one hundredths per cent of all children in 
attendance upon the public elementary schools received instruction 
in Halbtag^srhulen (Half-day schools). These schools were classed 
among the normal divisions of Prussian elementary schools by decree 
of October 15, 1872. This step was taken under the firm conviction 

*From " Preussisohe Statistik lOl." Berlin. 1889. 

t There were also 1,183 assistant teachers in addition to those of industrial training 
for girls. 



49 

that a teacher with a limited niiiiiber of pupils of one grade can 
accomiilish more in a few hours than with an overcrowded class uf all 
grades in double the time. ''Es wird angenommen, dasa ein Lelirer in 
uv.nigeii Slunden mil einer /clemeren Zahl einer AUerasin/e aiujehoriger 
Kinder melir erreiche, als mil der doppellen Zahl der Slunden i'u iXberfiXllter 
Klaaae mil Kindern aller AUersxtufen." 

This exjiedient merits attention in New York, in districts not pro- 
vided with sufficient school accommodations. 

Between May 20, 1886 and October, 1888, 354: new public elementary 
schools were opened with 975 classes, 788 male and 164: female teachers 
and 57,017 pupils.* 

SEVENTH CHAPTER 

S(;hools Preparatory to the Normal, for Males. 
Praparandenanstallen. 

Most of these preparatory schools are the outgrowth of piivate 
undertakings. Teachers began by taking a few pupils to fit for the 
noi'mal schools. From 1872 to November, 1888, thirty-two of these 
institutions were founded by the government. At this date there 
were 1,991 pupils in attendance. There are also similar private 
schools which receive State aid. 

There are, as a rule, two teachers at each of these institutions. The 
princijjal receives from $450 to $600 a year, and lives in the school; 
the assistant from $300 to $450, and ten per cent of salary as allowance 
for rent. 

The male teachers are now quite generally prepared for the normal 
schools in these Praparandenanstalteu, though some enter directly 
from the Mittelschuleu, Realschulen, <jymnasien or after preparation 
in private. 

Before admission to Praparaudeuanstalten candidates must have 
mastered the elementary school vurrirulum of eight years. 

Except under unusual circumstances candidates are admitted only 
once a year, at Easter time or Michaelmas. 

All applicants must present : 

a. Certificate of baj)tism. 

b. Certificate of vaccination and good physical condition. 

c. Certificate as to educational qualifications and moral character. 

d. Statement of father that he will pay costs of tuition, etc., with 
certificate from proper authorities that he possesses suflScient means 
to do so. 

Candidates are then admitted to the entrance examination, which is 
both written and oral, and embraces the course of study for elemen- 
tary schools. 

The number of pupils is generally between fifty and seventy, 
divided into two classes. The course covers three years. The second 
class has one division and should be absolved in one year. Promotion 
to the first class follows upon examination. The first class consists of 
two divisions generally instructed together. 

•Since I87t the experience of elementary school teachers has averaged about 17.5 
yaars. The following is the table for 1871 ; 

Per cent. 

Experienco cif from ono to ten years 3'.i.21 

Experience of from eleven to twenty years 23. 2« 

Experience of more than twenty years .'57.. 51 



50 

Tbe pupils are prepared for the normal school. The tuition is nine 
dollars a year. 

These institutions are day schools, the pupils themselves providing 
for board, clothing, books, etc. 

Candidates without means pay no tuition and receive aid to meet 
other expenses. 

Examinations are held at the close of each term. 

Semi-annual reports of studies and dejaortment are given to the 
I^upils. These must be returned with signature of father or guardian. 

Admission to the normal school follows upon examination. Candi- 
dates who fail must return to the preparatory school. The course 
of study is arranged to permit the entrance to the normal school at 
Easter or Michaelmas. 

Course of Study. 

Remarks. Object.— The prep.aration of candidates for the professional training of the 
normal school. Instruction is given in religion. language. mathematicB. history and 
geography, natural history, penmanship, drawing, vocal music, instrumental music 
(piano, violin, organ) and in French. AIJ sulijects are obligatory except B>eneh and 
instruction upon the piano and organ. 

Instruction is to be given in a simple manner, objectively when possible. Pupils 
should be trained to observe closely and to think for themselves. Careful attention 
should be paid to correct enunciation and expression. 

The pupils are encouraged to malce collections of minerals, insects, etc. 
Beliuion (not given). 

Language. The private reading of pupils is carefully overlooked. 

Correct, easy and logicHl oral and written expression is tiie aim of the course in lan- 
guage. Pupils should be able to read well and reproduce, in their own words, difficult 
selections in poetry and prose, when the subject-matter is not too technical. 

Heading. This is based upon the readers. The selections chosen should include the 
most important styles of prose and the principal forms of poetry. Something should 
be read from e.ach celebrated national author. 

Selections are studied as follows: 

a. Reading aloud by the teacher; 

b. Explanation of figures of speech and difficult expressions; 

0. Repeated reading by the pupils with especial reference to correct enunciation and 
expression; 

(L Subject-matter and train of thought; 

f. Free reproduction of the subject-matter, either in abbreviated form or with addition 
of that read lietween the lines; also with different dispositions of the subject-matter 
as to form and style ; 

/. Oral and written explanation of figures of speech. difBcult or technical expressions, 
synonymns, comparisons and the like. 

Explanation of the form of selection and short sketches of the author are given. A 
number of poems are learned by heart. 

The readers embriice also historical and geographical selections and natural history. 
These are carefully considered as well. 

Secothl ijtasti {tiro hours per ireekl. Short stories, fables, parables, sayings, historical 
anecdotes, descriptions, geographical pictures, lyrical poems and songs and biographi- 
cal sketches. 

First Glass (weekly two hours). In addition to the above proverbs and aphorisms, 
songs and elegies, lf>gends and ballads, idyls and selections from dramas. 

Biographical sketches of the lives of celebrated authors, such as Luther. S. Dach. Paul 
Gerhard. Gellert, Lessing. Claudius, I^lopstock. Voss, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Pesta- 
lozzi, W. Arndt. Sehenkendorf. Koerner, RUckert, Uhland, Chamisso, Freiligrath. 
Geibel, Grimm, Hebel, Krummacher. 

Remark. The course in the first class is two years. Selections are to he made so that 
in the second year the same forms of prose and poetry occur, but not the same pieces. 

Langoage {royititiueil). Style is formed by written tasks taken from the reader, from 
the instruction in geography, history, or natural history, or from life. The subject- 
matter for this written work is first taken up orally in the class. 

Serouil Ulass ((»■<) livms a week). Every three weeks two exercises are corrected by the 
teacher. 

First I'lass {one liour per u-eek). Every two weeks an' exercise is corrected by the 
teacher. These exercises consist of historical sketches, short biographies, geographi- 
cal descriptions, character description, explanation of synonymous expressions, 
proverbs, sayings and letters. 

Remark. lu addition to these written exercises the.second class must absolve a com- 
plete course in orthography involving the rules of orthography and practice to fix these 
rules in mind. 

The first class repeats these rules with their application. 

Gkammar. The children learn the laws for the use of the mother tongue. 

.Second Glass (one hour pel- week). Simple, compound and complex sentences ; parts of 
sppoch. 

First Glass lone hour per u^eek). Composition of words and sentences; punctuation. 

Private reading. The school library contains geographical and historical m.atter, 
biographies of celebrated men, popular sketches, (German classics and translations of 



51 

toreigu olassies, all of whic'b I'ome witbiii the range of tbe pupils. The seloi^tiou of the 

books to read is madi3 by the pupils with the advice of the teacher. Generally, a book 

is read every fortnielit. For practice in oral expression, the pupils must repeat before 

the class short episodes, descriptions, etc.. of that which they have read. 

M.\THEMATics. Tho puplls must acquire readiness iu the solution of problems In 
arithmetic and algebra. Pupils mu.-t always be able to give reasons for each step in 
the solution of a problem. Kepeated drill is given to t\x processes in the minds of 
pupils. 

Sfmiid Claisf Uecckhj tliree Iwnrs). Formation of figures. Notation and numeration. 
The four fundamental processes, decimals, aud common fractions. Simple algebraic 
problems. 

First Olaxs {u-peklu tiro lioicrs). Simple problems in algebra continued. Proportion, 
interest, discount, partnership, alligation, extraction of satiare root. 

Geometkv. Surfaces and solids. Simple propositions and definitions of lines, angles, 
triangles, iiu.idniugles. polygons and the circle. Computation of areas and contents. 

Second CVa.-^.s ione hour per ireek). Instruction should be given objectively. Care 
should be paid to correct expression. Practice in constructing geometrical figures. 
Properties of lines, angles, triangles and iiuadrangles. Construction and computation. 
Divisions of solids. Properties of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres and the regular 
solids. Comput.atiou of contents. 

First Ijlass ilmo liotirs per ipeek). Planimetry. Lines, angles, parallel lines, figures iu 
general an<l triangles in particular. 

First Birision, The most important propositions touching parallelograms and the 
circle. Practice in construction and computation. 

HisTOEv. The most important facts iu ancient, especially Grecian and Roman Ilhs- 
tory. The birth and spread of Christianity. The migration of tribes. The principal 
persons and facts in German History, and that of Brandenburg and Prussia. 

The subject-matter is introduced by the teacher iu the form of talks, the pupils 
learning to connect same with important persons and facts. Reproduction exercises 
Ijy the pupils. The principal dates. Ilgures and names are learned by heart and 
ll.xed through repeated drill. Historical selections from readers add Interest to this 
instruction. 

Seniuil ijlass {tiro lionrs per week). The peoples of the Orient, the Greeks and Romans ; 
birth and spread of Christianity: the ancient Germans; the migration of tribes: the 
empire of the Franks: Mahomet. 

First Ctass itwo hours). Pictures of medieval and modern times. 

GEoiiR.\PHY. The pupils learn particularly the geography of the home province, 
Germany and Europe: generally that of the other parts of the globe, including the five 
oceans and the elements of mathematical geography. 

Instruction proceeils from the known to the unknown. Globes, charts and pictures 
.should be largely us<h1. Pupils must learn to draw maps of what has been studied. 
Useless iletails Involving names and figures should be avoided. 

Seroml tjlass Uini liours). Form, shape and motions of the earth considered generally. 
Construction of maps, showing principal lines. Divisions of water and land. The 
geography of the home province. 

First Class [tiro lionrs). Geography of Germany and Kurope in particular, and that 
of .\sia. Africa. America and Australia in general. Continuation of mathematical 
geography. 

N.iTUKAL History. The construction, peculiarities, manner of living, etc.. of the 
lu'incipal animals. The elements of Phy.sics and Chemistry through experimentation. 
Plants. 

Seeoiid Class Itiro hours per week). Vegetable physiology and zoology. The most 
important plants of the neighborhood. Representatives of each class in the animal 
kingdom. 

Physics .ind Chemistky Uiue hour per iveek). Weight, warmth, cohe.-~ion, adhesion, 
compression of air. magnetism and electricity. Introduction to chemistry. Chemical 
terminology. 

First (Jliiss [three hours per u-eek). Pupils of the first and second years: 

Review of tho plants and animals considered above. Classification of the same. 

Pupils of the first year: 

Physiology. Structure of the human body. 

Pupils of the second year: 

The most important minerals. 

Pupils of the first year: 

Weight, magnetism and electricity, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, i/arbonic acid gas, 
sulphur, phosphorus and chlorine, with their principal ccmbinatious. 

Pupils of tho second year: 

So.ind. light, warmth, metals aud their combinations. 

WuiTixr,. Pupils must write neatly, legibly and with facility. They must learn to 
write well upi>n the blackboard. 

The formation of letters. Practice iu I'opy-books and upon the blackboard. Correc- 
tions should be made principally in the class. Faults of pupils should be clearly 
explained. Attention is first paid to neatness, legibility and correctness, then to 
rapidity. 

.^eroitd Class itiro hours ireekti/). The German script. 

Fir.1t Otuss {ime hour ireekUl). The L.itin and German scripts. 

DuAWiNG. Mechanical and free-hand drawing. Training of the eye and hand. 
Development of taste for regularity, syuimetry and beauty of form. Facility in drawing 
geometrical figures and simple objects in nature. 

The wh'ile class should work together, that which is to be drawn being Urst explained 
by teacher, ('hildreu should be led bv iiuestious to discover their own faults and correct 
the same. Practice upon the blackboard. 

Second Ijlass ( two hours per ireek). Straight lines varying, in length, position and 
thickness. Division of these lines into parts. Angles and division of the same into 



52 

parts. Symmetrical figures drawn witliin squares. Curved lines, iind figures with 
curved lines. 

First Class i.lii-0 lioiirs per week). Drawing of right-angled bodies and circular bodies 
before the eyes of pupils. Drawing of symmetrical figures, characteristic forms of 
plants and simple work in ornamental drawing. 

Music. /. Voral. Pupils should learn by heart about twenty religi'ius and secular 
songs. They should learn to read at sight easy hymns and songs of the people. Texts 
of songs are carefully explained. Attention is then devoted to key, rhythm, interval 
and time. The proper breathing places are indicated. 

At the beginning of each lesson a scale is practiced or an exercise in finding dilTerent 
intervals is studied. 

The two classes are combined and have two hours instruction weekly. The songs 
and hymns to be practiced are definitely stated. 

//. Instrmiieutal piano. The pupils learn to play well all major and minor scales, also 
easy studies, sonatinas and sonatas. In each piece careful attention is given to key, 
rhythm and time. A new piece is first played with one, then with two hands. Good 
position of hand and arm, precision of touch and ea.>e of execution are attended to. 

Pupils are divided according to capacity. Each division has one hour per week. 
Attention is given to careful gradation of the work. 

///. Viuliu. The principal major and minor scales in the first position. Facility in 
playing tiymns and songs previously practiced. Ability to read easy music at sight. 
Most careful attention to holding of instrument: to good and easy bowing; to firm 
position of the first finger; to style and correctness in playing in concert. 

Pupils are divided according to capacity. Each division has one hour per week. 

IV. Music ill general. Pupils learn the different clefs, rhythms and keys, the usual 
foreign terms and definitions of time, the doctrine of intervals and tune relations. One 
hour of instruction weekly. 

By examples upon the blackboard the proper understanding is facilitated and the 
pupil thereby led to the independent solution of given tasks. The basis of instruction 
in this branch is Widmann's "Harmony, Melody and Form," and, chiefly, Draht's 
" Theory of Music." 

V. IJarmfinij. The pupils learn to name and play in all positions and inversions the 
major and minor triad, and the chord of the dominant seventh. The formation of the 
triads and seventh chord is explained upon the blackboard and instrument, and fixed 
by repe.ated drill in the dilTereut keys. One hour of instruction weekjy for each class. 

VI. Organ. Pupils learn the elementary manual and pedal exercises ; to play at sight 
tour-part hymn tunes and to play from memory easy selections. 

Careful attention should be given to fingering, change of fingers on the same key, 
playing together with two hands, use of pedals (heel and toe). Necessary instruction 
In the use of stops is given. 

The first exercises should be most carefully drilled. 

The pupils are divided according to capacity. E.aeh division has one hour of instruc- 
tion weekly. The school for tlie organ of 8ohUtze and the preludes of Baumert. 

Feench. Pupils are permitted to take this course only when all other work is thor- 
oughly satisfactory. 

The pupils study carefully a French Elementary Grammar, learning to translate easy 
execoises from German into French and from French into German. 

Drill in punctuation and orthography. Kules are always fixed in mind by practical 
examples. From the beginning pupils are taught to understand easy sentences in 
French, and later questions. The simplest rules give material fur eomiiarison of the 
two languages. The selections in reader are first translated literally, then into good 
German, finally re-translated into French. These selections afford .subject-matter for 
dialogues wittithe pupils, bringing into practice the words and rules learned. 

Second Class {iceekUi, t>co hours). Lessons l-.w. Elementary Grammar by Ploetz. Drill 
upon all forms of avoir and ctre. After finishing the first forty lessons, the first and 
second conjug.ations are learned. 

First Class ttreeliy, tiro hoins). Lessons 60-91, Ploetz, Elementary Grammar. Thor- 
ough drill of the four eunjugations. Division A finishes the elementary reader. 

Gymnastics. Candidates learn all exercises included in the "Neuer Leitfadeu .tUr 
(Icii Tio-nunterricld in den I'renssisclwn \'i>ll,-sscliiden" (New Manual for Gymnastic 
Instruction in Prussian Elementary Schools). Each hour of instruction in gymnastics 
begins with exercises standing, then moving and drilling, finally with gymnastic 
apparatus. 

All pupils work together two hours a week in gymnastics, following the manual. 



EIGHTH CHAPTER. 

Normal Schools fob Male Teachers.* 

Normal schools are called teachers' seminaries iu Prussia. They 
are smaller and more numerous than our own. 

In October, 1888, there were 107 State normal schools for males in 
Prussia, with an attendance of 8,507, of which number 3,031 were day 

•Formerly many m.ale elementary teachers were not graduates of normal schools. 
The tact that all are now held rigidly to the same requirements has driven almost all 
to the normal schools. " Es gicbt fhr alle Lehrer nur eineu VVeg der Vorbilduug. 
Dieselbe wird ihnen im engsten Anschlussean die Aufgaben, bezw. an den Lehrplan 
der Volksschule ertheilt, indem sle sich ,aut Vertiefung und Ergilnzung der dort 
gewonnenen Kentnisse beschriinkt." (Drs. Schneider and Petersilie.) 



53 

students. Except in seven cases, no normal school had more than 
100 pupils ; thirty-five had less than seventy ; thirty-eight vpere for 
boarders only; thirty-two had day pupils aloue, and thirty-seven had 
both. 

With several excejitions, all normal schools are situated in small 
villages. As a rule, they are not as well built or furnished as similar 
institutions here. There are always one or more practice-schools con- 
nected with each institution. 

There are Kin jiractice-schools (Uebungaschulen) in connection with 
tlie normal schools; 19,7G0 pupils were in attendance in 1886. These 
schools liad 478 classes, 159 for boys, HC for girls, and 283 mixed 
classes. 

Upon entering the normal schools, pupils must have had a good 
common school education, and, excepting pedagogics, must be fami- 
liar with the subject-matter of all branches taught. This accounts in 
a large measure for the thoroughness of the professional training 
received. 

Tuition is free at all normal schools. In boarding-schools, lodging, 
heating and light are free. Candidates without means receive further 
aid — in boarding-schools, amounting to twenty-two dollars and fifty 
cents; in day-schools, to thirty-seven dollars and fifty cents annually. 
Graduates are bound to serve at least three years subject to the 
direction of the government, under the penalty of forfeiting the cost 
of instruction and living expenses advanced. Tuition in such cases is 
reckoned at fifteen dollars annually. 

Students are generally sons of farmers, tradesmen or teachers. 
Few come from higher ranks of society. 

Each normal school has a director, a first teacher, four ordinary 
teachers and an assistant. 

In addition to free dwelling or the legal allowance therefor, the 
salaries paid are as follows: 

Director $900 to $1 ,200 

First teacher 675 to 825 

Ordinary teachers 425 to 675 

Assistant 300 .... 



Teachers are generally either clergymen or former high and 
elementary school instructors. 

Opportunity is afforded the members of the faculty to visit other 
normal schools. Tluough conferences and school revisions normal 
school teac-hers are brought frequently in contact with elementary 
teachers. 

Examinations for admission to the normal schools are held once 
each year before the beginning of the term. Candidates of good 
moral character and good physical condition not under 17 years of 
age, nor more than 24, possessing means to meet expenses, are admitted 
to this examination, whether prepared in middle schools, Realschulen, 
Gymnasien, Praparaudenanstalten or in private. 

Applications .nust be made at least three weeks before the examina- 
tion. More than three trials are not permitted. 

With the application, candidates must present: 

1. Certificate of baptism (birth certificate); 

2. Certificate of vaccination and good x^hysical condition; 



54 

3. Certificate as to moral character; 

4. Statement, legalized by local authorities, of father or guardian 
that means are at hand to paj' living expenses. 

Special permission of the provincial school consistory {Provinzial- 
Schulcollegium) is required for the admission of candidates more than 
24 years of age. 

Candidates who pass the entrance examination before appointment 
are reexamined as to physical condition by the normal school physician. 

The eximination is conducted by the normal school faculty with a 
commissary of the provincial school consistory as chairman. School 
commissioners and preparatory school teachers {Praparandenbildner) 
of the district may be present. 

The examination is both oral and written. In the written examina- 
tion the candidate must write a short theme upon a given subject, and 
answer a number of questions covering the subject-matter of the 
examination. These questions should not require more than two or 
three minutes' time each. The committee is authorized to shut out 
from further examination pupils who show themselves deficient in the 
written work. The oral examination covers all subjects taught in the 
normal school, except pedagogics. Each normal school teacher exam- 
ines in the subject in which he instructs in the normal school. The 
whole faculty of the normal school should be present. "When this is 
not the case, the candidates should be classed according to the number 
of teachers present; nevertheless, when difference of opinion exists as 
to maturity of candidate for normal school, he must be reexamined in 
doubtful subjects before the whole faculty. 

The principal subjects are: 1. Religion; 2. Language; 3. Arith- 
metic and Geometry; 4. Music; 5. Realien and History. (Realien, 
i. e., Geography and Natural History.) 

Candidates who fail in anj' one of these subjects will be received 
only when all other work attains a high degree of excellence. When 
an imperfect examination in music is attributable to lack of ear, the 
candidate may be received. Failure in the examination upon the 
organ is not suificient cause for debarring a candidate. 

This entrance examination must prove jiroficiency of pupils, as follows : 

a. Religion. (Not given); 

b. Langoage. 1. Parts of speech, composition of words and analysis 
of sentences. The candidate must be able to give practical applica- 
tions of rules in proverbs, or quotations from national authors; 

2. He must be able to read readily at sight, with correct enuncia- 
tion and exjjression. He must explain what he has read, defining 
words and analyzing sentences; 

3. He must know the principal forms of poetry, and recognize the 
same. He must be able to repeat from memory poems of Schiller, Uhland, 
Riickert, etc., with good expression, explaining the subject-matter; 

4. He must be able to write correctly and grammatically, and com- 
jDOse short themes on given subjects. 

c. Arithmetic. Facility and correctness in the solution of problems 
in mental arithmetic; a thorough knowledge of the method of solu- 
tion upon the blackboard. 

The four fundamental jjrocesses, common and decimal fractions, 
ratio and j^roportion, business arithmetic, including alligation. Prob- 
lems in elementary algebra. 



The candidate must work with facility and surety, showing that he 
understands reasons for processes used. 

d. Geometry. Elements of plane geometry. Computation of area 
of surfaces and contents of solids. 

e. Geography. General knowledge of the parts of the glolje and 
the five oceans, more particular knowledge of Europe, especially Ger- 
many. The principal points in mathematical geography. 

/. History. Principal events in ancient history, such as the Trojan 
war, the Persian wars, the bloom of Greece, Alexander the Great, the 
foundation of Rome, the Kings, expulsion of the Tarquins, Camillus, 
the Gauls, the Punic wars, etc. The birth and spread of Christianity, 
the migration of tribes; principal persons and events in the history 
of Germany, Brandenburg and Prussia up to date. The most impor- 
tant dates only are desired. 

g. Natural History. The candidate must prove his knowledge of 
the three kingdoms by the explanation of important specimens of each 
class under adopted classifications. More detailed information is 
required touching the cultivated and poisonous plants, the fauna 
and Jlora of the home. The elements of chemistry. It is desii-able 
that candidate ^'I't^P^-i'e for examination by practical course in 
experimentation. 

h. Pknmanship. Ease in correct writing on paper and on the black- 
board. All written work must be orderly, neat and legible. 

'/. Drawing. Free-hand and mechanical drawing. Practice required 
in blackboard drawing. 

,/. Mnsic. Candidates must be able to sing, from memory, with a 
fair degree of correctness, twenty of the best known secular and 
religious songs. They must be able to read at sight simple hymns 
and songs of the jseople. 

Candidates should be able to play correctly on the piano all major 
and minor scales; to play from memory easy studies and sonatas; to 
read, at sight, simple selections. They should play readily and cor- 
rectly upon the violin the most important major and minor scales in 
the first jjositiou. Hymns and songs, learned by heart, must be 
played from memory, and easy music at sight. A good foundation in 
the technique of the instrument is the first requisite. 

In general musical knowledge, the examination covers clefs, rhythms 
and keys, the usual foreign terms and definitions of time, the doc- 
trine of intervals and tone relations. 

In harmonj', candidates must name and play the major and minor 
triad and the chord of the dominant seventh in all positions. 

In organ-playing, the candidates must know the elementary manual 
and pedal exercises, play simple four-part hymns at sight and simple 
selections from memory. 

k. Gymnastics. Candidates must be ready to perform all exercises 
contained in the "New Manual for Gymnastical Instruction in Prussian 
Elementary Schools." 

Oeganiz.vtion of Normal Scuools and Courses of Study. 

Each normal school should be connected with a graded and ungraded 
practice school. 

Tue work in the practice school is under the charge of the director 
of the noi'mal school, through a sjjecial teacher as Ordinarius. 



56 



The position of Ordinarius is given to one of the normal school 
instructors. 

The course in the normal school covers three years. 

In the third class, the pupils do not teach in the practice school. 
An effort is made toward uniformity, to prepare the class, as a unit, 
for professional training. Introduction to pedagogies. 

In the middle class the pupils extend their knowledge of all sub- 
jects which they are to teach. They are present at classes in the 
practice school, attending carefully to the instruction given, assisting 
the teacher and conducting themselves class exercises. Continuation 
of pedagogics. 

In the highest class, the pupils finish the course of study at the 
normal school, receiving instruction for subsequent work in prepara- 
tion for the final examination, which occurs not less than two nor more 
than five years after graduation. They are given systematic instruc- 
tion in the practice school under the oversight of the Ordinarim-. No 
pupil should have less than six or more than ten hours per week as 
teacher. Before graduation each one must have instructed at least in 
arithmetic, religion, language, music, and one of the other subjects. 
There must be, at least three times a year, a change in the division 
of work. Before such change the pupil must conduct an examination 
in the presence of the normal school faculty. 

The teacher must keep a register, showing in detail the work which 
has been accomplished by weeks. This serves as the basis for reviews 
and examinations. Examinations are held at the close of each term. 
They embrace all subjects taught, and are held in the presence of the 
normal school faculty. If pupil is not ready for promotion he should 
leave the school. Permission may be given, however, to repeat the 
work of his class, if good reasons make same advisable. 

The following shows the weekly distribution of time in the various 
subjects : 




Pedagogics I 2 

Religion i 4 

Language j 5 

History I 2 

Arithmetic and algebra i 3 

Geometry i 2 

Natural history, chemistry and physics j 4 

Geography 2 



Drawing 

Writing . . . 

Gymnastics 

Instrumental and vocal music. 



Foreign tongues (English, French, Latin) j 3 



Second Third 
year. year. 



2 
4 
5 
2 
3 
2 
4 
2 
2 
1 
2 
5 
3 




3 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 

2 
3 
2 



22 



57 

Wednesday and Saturday are half-holidays. An opportunity is thus 
afforded for excursions to collect plants, minerals, etc. The vacations 
amount to eight weeks annually. 

All subjects embraced in elenientarv school work and pedagogics 
are compulsory for all pupils. 

According to deci'ee of 1878, dispensations in music should be lim- 
ited as much as possible. 

Instruction in French, English and Latin is voluntary. Pupils 
who have never studied one of these languages previous to entrance 
to the normal school are permitted to begin only in exceptional 
cases. The preference is generally given to French. 

The instruction received at the normal school should conform to 
that which the pupils will afterward give as teachers. The subject- 
matter should be carefully arranged by the teacher and as carefully 
reproduced by the pupil. 

Dictation is forbidden, also copying during the lectures. Text-books 
should serve as the basis of instruction, so far as possible, in each 
subject. 

Method always accorapauies subject-matter. Pupils are carefully 
drilled in oral and written reproduction of lessons. 

In addition to a good working library the normal school should 
have a physical and, when possible, a chemical laboratory. The 
school should be provided with the necessary objects used in teaching. 

The ibrary should be well classified. It should contain the German 
classics, both in prose and poetrj', with which the pupils are to 
become acquainted; pedagogical works, particularly those of the last 
300 years — for example, the Pedagogical Library of Karl Bichter; 
the best books for the young from the time of the philanthrojiists to 
the present; iinally, the popular books upon universal and national 
history and natural history, descriptive works, etc. ; Schleiden, Tschudi, 
Masius, Brehm, Rossmiissler, Kuss, Hartwig, Miiller, Von Barnhagen, 
Adami, Werner Hahn, Ferd. Schmidt, Wildenhahn, W. Baur, Freitag, 
Riehl, etc. 

Private reading of pupils is systematic and controlled. It is ordered 
so that they must read necessary works, such as Lessiug's Minna von 
Barnhelm, Schiller's Walleustein, Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, 
Pestalozzi's Lienhard und Gertrud 

Associations of pupils for self-improvement, such as common read- 
ing, musical exercises, botanical excursions, etc., are encouraged. 

At least once a month the pupils have a holiday to devote to such 
independent work as they see tit. Upon these days teachers should 
not assign special tasks. 

The time-tables should be so arranged that the practice school may 
not interfere with other work. The first class receives instruction 
when the practice school is not in session; the second class jsartly so. 

Instruction in the normal school is given in accordance with a 
special course of study for each school. The following syllabus 
serves as the guide for such courses of study: 

SvLL.iBns OF Work. 

Pedaoooics. 
Third Class itwo hours treekW) : 

The pupil.s learn the most important features in the history of etineation through 
pictures of famous educators, notable periods, the most interesting and useful improve- 
ments in elementary schools. This instructiou is completed by the introduction of the 

8 



58 

chief pedagogical works, especially those published since the Reformation. Reading 
centralizes around some important pedagogical question until same be understood by 
pupils in all its bearings. 
Srcond Vlnsn (/»•» hmirF: i/vW.'/y); 

General principles of education. Instruction. Form in which instruction should bo 
given. Development through Instruction. Reference is made to logic and psychology. 
First ClaKu {three hoars ii^eekly) : 

Methods. The te.ai-her's position. School government. School organization. School 
law. The third hour is devoted, in the practice school, to practical applications of 
methods learned by the pupils. 

Religjon. 

(Not given.) 

Language. 
Third Class {five hours it^eekty) : 

a. Grammar: Simple, complex and compoundsentenees. Partsof speech, declensions, 
comparison of adjectives, conjugations. The rules of orthography and punctuation. 

tj. Reading: Practice in reading aloud and in written expression, form and construc- 
tion of poetry, meter, rhyme; Uric and epic poetry; the poetical narrative, legend, 
saying, fairy tale, ballad; didactical forms, fable, parable. 

Second Class {fire hours ireeMu): 

a. Grammar: More difficult work in the analysis of sentences. Composition of words. 
Rules rel.ating to verbs, adjectives and prepositions. Punctuation. 

h. Reading, as above, with more dillicult selections. Lyric, epic and dramatic poetry 
in general. Songs of the people, odes. Iiallnds. romances, epics and dramas, 

c. Method in teaching reading: Practical application in the form of class exercises. 
First Class {two hours): 

Review. Extension of the matter in reading. Method in language work in connected 
form, illustrated by class exercises. 

In language work careful attention should be paid to; 

a. Fluent and correct expression of thought. 

h. Correctness in written expression of thought, clearness in form and good arrange- 
ment. The pupil must learn to teach that which he has been ta\ight. To insure this, 
ease and correctness in oral and written expression are necessary, 

c. Private reading. The books read should embrace the master-pieces of national 
authors both in prose and poetry. 

d. Reading in class. Pieces are selected from the time of Luther to the present. 
Form and subject-matter are taken up. Selections in readers in use in elementary 
schools are carefully studied. A number of poems are learned by heart. 

In addition to the readers in use in the practice school, there are special normal 
school readers. 

History. 
Third Ctass {tiro liours irt^eKiu): 

Pictures in ancient history, especially the history of Greece (a. age of the heroes; b, 
period of the law-givers; e, the Persian wars to the death of Alexander the Great). 
Rome (a. the Kings ; b. the Republic ; c, the fall of the Republic and the first century of 
the Empire). 
Second Class I tiro tiours ireel'ly): 

Country of the ancient Germans; wars with the Romans: the migration of tribes; 
period of the Carlovingians, especially the spread of Christianity and Charlemagne; 
history of the early German dynasties; the Crusades to the time of the Reformation. 
First Glass {tiro hours ireel'ly): 

The history of Brandenburg and Prussia up to date; relations with neighboring States 
and countries. 

Method begins in the third class with drill in relating historical facts and events; 
continues in the second class with class exercises ; closes in the first class with system- 
atic work in the practice school. 

Akithmetic and Algebra. 

Third Class {three lionrs weekly): 

The formation of figures; the four fundamental processes; decimals; common frac- 
tions, ratio and proportion : business arithmetic, including alligation, scjuare and cube 
root. 
Second Class (three liours weekly): 

Proportions ; positive and negative terms ; equations of the first degree, powers and 
roots. 

Class exercises are given, the subjects being taken from elementr^ry school courses of 
study. Pupils learn use of numerical frame and other apparatus for teaching primary 
arithmetic. 
First Class {one hour): 

Review to fix method. Equations of the second degree and, if possible, progressions 
and logarithms. Drill to insure ease and security in the solution of problems. 

Geometri. 
Third Class {tiro hours weekly): 

The triangle, the parallelogram and the circle. Exercises in construction. 
Second Class {tiro liours ireekly): 

Instruction as to the e.iuality and similarity of plane figures and their computation. 
Computation of contents of solids. 



59 

First Clasi: : 

Review with special reference to raetliod in teaching. 

In all classes pupils are drilled in the drawing of geometrical ngureH upon the black- 
board. 

The instruction is based upon text-books, and is given ob.iectively. Uoar instruction 
is given upon methods of teaching, suggestions as to continuation of course and ability 
to impart instruction. 

Natural Histoey. Phvsrs and Chemistky. 

Tliirii rVn.s.f ( four liours ifei'klu) : 

a. Natural History: The study of selected indigenous plants belonging to the com- 
monest families. The system of Linne. Botanical morphology. 

In the winter, zoology two hours weekly. 

h. Physics: llagnetism, elf c'tricity and mechanics. 

<■. Chemistry: The principal bases and their combiuatious. especially in relation to 
mineralogy. Two hours per week. 
Srcontl Clastt ifour hours ircfklti): 

a. Natural History: Study of the principal forms of seed ami spore plants. System of 
classihcation. Form, growth and diffusion of plants. 

In the winter, knowledge of zoology is extended. Structure of the human body and 
conditions of health. Two hours a week. 

h. Physics: Light, heat and sound. 

(• Ohemistry: Extension of above. Organic chemistry. Two hours a week. 

Methods of teaching these subjects receive careful attention through lectures and 
class exercises. 
First t'iass \tv'o hours wci'f.-iij): 

Ueview and completion of the course, with special attention to methods of teaching. 
<;ieologv is introduced and suggestions given to aid in continuing the study. 

Instruction is to be given objectively. Physics and chemistry should not be taught 
without practical experimentation; botany and zoology without objects or good repre- 
sentatives of objects studied. Pure mechanical work in memorizing is forbidden. 

GEOGKArHY. 

Third Class {two hours 'tiwi'kii/): 

The geography of the home province, Prussia, Germany and the rest of the globe, the 
former particularly, the latter superficially. The study of maps. 
Second Class {tujo lioiirs irccklu): 

Germany and Europe. Mathematical geography. Method in teaching geography 
through lectures and class exercises. 

First Clnss iOJie hour ireMij): 

Continuation of methods. The use of atlas, wall-maps, globes, telluri.'ius and other 
objects employed in teaching geiigranhy. Each r'upil must have a good hand atlas fur 
use in this work. The school text-book is an abbreviated edition of the complete work, 

. DKAWINr,, 

Third Class ((wo hoars n h'ccJ-); 

Free-hand drawing. Lines and angles. Division of the same into parts. Drawing of 
geometrical figures and symmetrical figures within S(iuares. Drawing of sections 
of right-angled bodies and circular bodies before the eyes of pupils. Drawing of sym- 
metrical and ornamental figures. Mechanical drawing with rule and compass. Pr.actice 
in ornamental drawing. Practice in drawing upon the blackboard. 
Seronil Class Itiro hiturs a iri-fk}: 

a. Elements of perspective; h. free-hand drawing with black chalk, bister, sepia, etc, 
from plaster of Paris models and from nature. This work .■should be arranged accord- 
ing to the respective talents of pupils; c. practice in drawing upon the blackboard. 

First Class ioup hour irt-fkhj): 

a. Continuation of work .as above, especially as regards blackboard drawing, giving 
attention to work in drawing demanded in teaching other subjects: b. Method in teach- 
ing drawing; r. Suggestions to aid in continuing the work beyond the normal school 
I'ourse. 

Instruction in drawing should enable pupils to do all work neatly reqnircd in teach- 
ing this and other subjects, such as geometry, geogr.aphy, etc. 

Penmanship. 

Third Class ittro lioars }rei'klij) ; Second Class {one hour ireeklii) : 
The object of this course is to insure: 

1. Neatness, f;ieility and ciu-reetuess in all written work ; 

2, A definite method for u.se in teaching penmanship. 

Gymnastics, 

The basis of the course in gymnastics is the " New Manual for Instruction in Gymnas- 
tics," Pupils may be brought further than the book goes. They must be able to teach 
systematically all exercises included in said manual. 

The third and second classes have two hours of i-ractical gymnastics per week, tiie llrst 
class one hour. The llrst class has, in addition, instrui'tion of one hour weekly upon 
the structure of the humjin body, expedients in the case of accidents, the history and 
purpose of physical training, apparatus used in gymnastic exercises. 

I'njids of theSirsI class, under oversight of the teacher of gymnastics, give iustructi(ui 
in the practice school. 



fiO 

Music. 

I. Piano. Technical exercises, in the third class, in touch and execution. A aystem- 
atic course of instruction as given in the best schools for the piano. Independent 
pieces beginning with Clementi's Sonatinas, or something similar, and progressing 
in such a way as to introduce, in addition to the classics, modern works. 

Si'(Mnd Class. Continuation of above. Talented pupils study the works of Cramer. 
Sonatas by the classical masters, such as Mozart, Beethoven, Hayden. etc., systemat- 
ically arranged by teacher. 

First Class. Practice upon the piano in private. 

II. Okgan. Pupils are advanced according to capacity and previous preparation in 
the school for the organ followed. 

Tlard Class. Continuous practice in the hymn-book used. 

Second Class. Practice of the simple organ movements which have been analyzed 
and transposed in the course in harmony. Playing suelt selections at sight. Entire 
acquisition of a prelude to each one of the customary hymn-tunes, as preparation tor 
appropriate playing of organ during divine service. 

First Class. Transposition o( melodies, modulation. Composition of short preludes 
and simple interludes. 

III. Hakmony. Pupils who are not to qualify themselves as organists must neverthe- 
less absolve the work of the third class and the historical part of that of the first 
class. 

TUird Class. Construction and pnactice of major and minor triads: of the chords of 
the seventh and ninth as to chief forms and fundamental laws of their construction. 

Sfcond Class. Drill in the knowledge of the harmonized material and continuous 
employment thereof in the harmonization of tunes and in the analysis, tran.sposition 
and practice of short harmonized organ movements given by teacher. First course in 
modulation. 

First Class. Harmonization of hymn-tunes and songs of the people. Composition of 
simple preludes to hymn-tunes and formation of appropriate interludes. Second course 
in modulation. Ancient modes. General study of the most important forms of vocal 
and instrumental music. Construction and care of the organ. Outlines of the history 
of music. 

IV. Violin. Pupils are classified according to capacity. Each division must absolve 
the course. The following directions require attention : 

a. Drill in committing to memory the hymns and songs of the people studied ; 

h. Drill in duets; 

c. Introduction in the advanced divisions to the higher positions. 

V. Singing. Special instruction for the third class in the formation of the voice. 
Hymn-tunes and songs of the people, at first in one. then in two and three parts. 

Mixed chorus with classes combined. 

Progressive instruction of the elementary classes in: 

a. Vocalises and solfeggi properly so called and composed in the form of complete 
pieces ; 

b. More and more detailed knowledge of intervals, but chiefly of the chords and their 
various forms. 

Entire acquisition of the hymns and psalms most in vogue. Hymn-tunes and other 
songs in several parts. 

a. The liturgical chorus which the first class learns to lead ; 

b. Other religious choral songs, nioti'ttes. psalms by classical ma.sters: 

c. Secular choral songs, especially the best of folk and national songs ; 

Special instruction for the first class in method of teaching music in elementary 
schools, connected with exercises in the practice-school. Execution of mixed choral 
songs in combination with the upper class of the practice school. 

The object of the course is the training of teachers for good work in teaching music 
in the elementary schools, not to develop special talents at the expense of the other 
pupils. Pupils are taught to love the old masters and beware of introducing their own 
compositions in their school districts. 

FoKEiGN Tongues. 

There are three courses of three, three and two hours per week respectively, divided 
not according to years but according to progress of pupils. In the lowest class the 
course begins with an introductory grammar of the language studied, French, English, 
or Latin. 

Gardening, Pkuit Trees, Silk Cultuee. 

In the instruction given in natural history, these subjects require special attention. 



NINTH CHAPTER. 
EXAMINATIONS FOR MALE TEACHEES. 

I. First Teachers' Examination for Temporary Licenses in Elementary 

Schools. 

At the close of the normal school cotirse, an examination is held to 
test the qualifications of candidates for a temjjorary engagement as 
teacher. 

Applicants not graduates of normal schools, but who are at the end 
of the twentieth year of age, are admitted, upon presentation of 



fil 

certificates, testifying to good moral cliaracter and phj-sical con- 
dition. 

All candidates must give notice at least three weeks before the 
time set for the examination, forwarding the following certificates: 

1. Certificate of bai^tism (l)irth certificate). 

2. Certificate of good physical condition. 

3 . Certificate of good moral character. 

In every case, an autobiography is to be inclosed with the above 
certificates. Said certificates must bo official. 

The committee in charge of the examination is composed of the 
commissary of the 23rovincial school consistory as chairman, a member 
of the local government, the director and teachers of the normal 
school for the district in which the examination is held. The school 
commissioners may be prtsent, and also other persons when authorized 
by the chairman. 

Candidates not trained in normal schools must submit drawings and 
written specimens of their work. The other candidates must submit 
the drawing and writing-books of the last year at the normal school. 

The written test consists of: 

1. A theme on methods, school organization or management, or 
from the province of instruction in language or literature. 

2. An essay on some subject connected with religious instruction. 

3. The complete solution of three jsroblems in arithmetic and 
geometry'. 

4. 5, (). Answer to one question in each of the three subjects — 
natural history, history and geography. 

7. For those who are to give instruction upon the organ, the har- 
monization of a choral with prelude and interludes. 

The voluntary subjects are: 

8. English, French or Latin. Translation of a selection from one 
of these foreign tongues into German, and translation of German 
into the foreign tongue in question. 

Four hours are allowed for the first task and two hours for each of 
the others. 

The sul)jects are chosen by the member of the provincial school 
consistory, upon recommendation of the normal school faculty. 

The practical test consists of a class exercise in one of the compul- 
sory subjects. This work is assigned two days in advance, and can- 
didate must submit a written analysis thereof. 

Those examined in voluntary subjects must give a class exercise in 
said subjects when possible. 

The oral examination embraces all subjects taught in the normal 
school, covering the entire normal school course. The chairman is 
authorized, however, to exclude such work as he deems unnecessary. 

The candidate must answer (luestions definitely and clearly. 

When written work is exceptionally good, candidates may be excused 
from a iDart or the whole of the oral examination. 

In the case of Jewish candidates, the subject of religion is not touched 
upon. 

The oral examination must lie held in the presence of the whole 
committee. 

A record is kejjt of tha standing of applicants in each subject; marks, 
very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient, as the case may be. Can- 



62 

(lidates fail to pass wlio do not attain the mark " sufficient " in religion, 
German, arithmetic and moi-e than three of the other subjects (peda- 
gogics, singing, drawing, writing, history, geography, natural history, 
geometry). 

Candidates who pass the examination receive a certificate stating 
preparation candidate has had for the examination and standing 
attained in each subject. 

The committee tlien licenses said candidates to teach provisionally. 

II. The Second and Final Teachers' Examination for Elementary 

Schools. 

Not earlier than two years nor more than five years after the first 
examination, teachers must pass the final examination. They are then 
assured of pay for life, even should the schools where they are 
employed cease to exist. 

The committee is the same as that for the first examination. 

Candidates must give notice to provincial school consistory, through 
the school commissioner, at least four weeks before the examination. 
They must submit: 

1. A certificate from the school commissioner; 

2. An essay, stating authorities used, and certifying that they have 
received no assistance from other sources; 

3. A drawing, with certificate that candidate has received no assist- 
ance in preparing the same ; * 

■1. A specimen of penmanship under the same conditions. 

These four particulars determine the admission or non-admission of 
candidates to the examination. 

Candidate maj' endeavor to raise the standing attained at the first 
teachers' examination, or he may try the voluntary subjects. 

The written test consists of a theme on some subject connected with 
school management, a theme relating to religious instruction, and one 
touching instructioa in one of the other common school branches. 
Jewish candidates substitute another subject in place of religious 
instruction. This work is chosen by the chairman of the examining 
committee upon recommendation of the normal school faculty for the 
district in which the examination is held. The work must be done in 
the presence of a member of the committee. 

The practical test consists of a class-exercise, the subject for which 
is announced the day before. 

The oral test covers the liistor}' of education, principles of educa- 
tion, school management and methods of teaching. At the discretion 
of the committee, questions may be asked touching positive knowledge 
of subject-matter. 

Candidates are marked, very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient, 
as the case may be. 

Candidates who fail to attain the mark " sufficient " in the class- 
exercise are rejected. Results in other respects are determined as at 
the first examination. 

Successful candidates receive certificates showing standing attained 
in each subject. The committee then licenses said candidates to teach 
permanently. 

*Tbis drawing is uow submitted by the candidate in person at the time of the 
examination. 



63 

Candidates failing to attain a higher standing than at the first exam- 
ination in the subjects in which they have been reexamined are, never- 
theless, permanently licensed, if other work has been satisfactory. 

Candidates who received the standing " good " in religion, language, 
arithmetic, geography, history and natural history (or instead of the 
last three a foreign tongue) at the first examination or the final exam- 
ination, and who, at the final examination, received the same mark in 
all subjects are legally qualified to teach in the lower classes of middle 
schools, and higher schools for girls. 



TENTH CHAPTER. 

NOKMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALES.* 

As is well known the number of male teachers in Prussia greatly 
exceeds that of the female. In 1886, 64,750 regular teachers were 
employed in the public elementary schools, and of the number only 
6,848 were females. The ratio of female to male teachers varies 
greatly in different parts of the kingdom. In Protestant districts 
men are quite generally preferred even in the lowest primary grades. 
In ungraded schools the prejudice agaiust female teachers is particu- 
larly strong l)oth with Roman Catholics and Protestants. 

There has been a great change in public opinion as regards female 
teachers within the past thirty years. In 1861, oulj' 1,7.52 female 
teachers were employed in the jniblic elementary, middle and high 
schools for girls. May 20, 1886, 6,848 were employed iu the public 
elementary schools alone. These female teachers were %ery unequally 
distributed. Four thousand two hundred and thirty-three were Roman 
Catholics, 2, .551 Protestants and sixty-four belonged to other religious 
denominations. In the province of Hohenzollern only four female 
elementary teachers were employed; in Poseu only thirty-six, while in 
Rheinland there were 2,855 and in Westphalia 1,206. In 18'.)0 in the 
Laudkreis of Aix-la-Chapelle, where inhabitants are mostly Roman 
Catholics, 120 females and 1()2 males are employed in one school 
commissioner district. 

Ample provisions are made for the training of male teachers. 
Almost all engaged in elementary schools are normal graduates. The 
women are not so fairly dealt with. There are about twelve State 
normal schools for males where one exists for females. In Prussia 
girls do not receive much encouragement, comparatively speaking, to 
go on beyond the elementary school course. 

Novem'ber 15, 1888, there wore nine State normal schools for female 
elementary school teachers in Prussia, with an attendance of 586. Two 
hundred and ninetj'-eight were boarding students; 288 were day 
pupils. There were also three training schools for governesses, and a 
number of private institutions for the preparation of female teachers. 

We glance briefly at one of each of these public institutions at 
Droyssig. 

Both institutions are boarding schools, the tuition and living expenses 
at the former costing sixty dollars annually with extras amounting to 
between sixteen and eighteen dollars; at the latter ninety-three 
dollars annually with extras from eighteen to twenty-one dollars. 

• The salaries paid female teachers in normal schools vary from $250 (l.rMii) marks) to 
$300 (2.000 marks) with rent, fuel and. in most cases, a garden. 



64 

Canclidates for admission to the normal school for female teachers 
must have the same qualifications, except in music, as those for admis- 
sion to other normal schools. In addition they must have taken a 
course in industrial training for girls. A beginning is desired in 
French, singing and playing upon the piano. 

Candidates for admission to the normal school for governesses must 
have had preparation equivalent to that given in a good high school 
for girls, including the course in industrial training. 

Candidates for admission to both these institutions should not be 
under 17 nor exceed 2-1: yeai-s of age. Formalities for admission are 
very much the same as in the case of normal schools for male teachers. 

The course in the normal school for female teachers embraces two 
years, the pujiils being divided into two classes; the course in the 
normal school for governesses covers three years, the j)upils being 
divided into three classes. The number of pupils in the former 
institution is fixed at forty, that in the latter at forty-two. 

At the close of the courses examinations are held, the successful 
candidates of the former institution receiving a license to teach in an 
elementary school; those of the latter a license to teach in a private 
school as governess or in middle and higher schools for girls. 



ELEVENTH CHAPTER 

EXAMINATION OP FEMALE TEACHERS. 

Female teachers are not subjected to a second examination as male 
teachers are.* There are two kinds of examinations for female teachers: 
(1.) Those held ujjou graduation from the normal schools at Berlin, 
Miinster, Paderborn, Poseu, etc., or other institutions duly authorized. 
(2.) Those held twice a year in each province for candidates not trained 
in normal schools or other institutions authorized to hold examina- 
tions, Kuh 1. 

Candidates must be at least 18 years of age.f They must be of good 
moral character and in good physical condition. 

Application must be made not later than four weeks in advance, 
and candidate must state whether she applies for license for elemen- 
tary or middle and higher schools, the two examinations being held 
together. 

The following are to be submitted: 

1. An autobiography upon title-page of which the full name of can- 
didate, with place of birth, age, religion and place of residence, are 
stated. 

2. Certificate of baptism (birth). 

3. Certificate showing jarevious preparation and standing attained 
in examinations. 

4. Certificate as to moral character. 

5. Certificate as to physical condition. 

*After an experience of Ave years in teaching, female teachers are admitted to the 
examinations for liceu'ios to direet public and private schools for girls. " Filnfjilhrige 
Lehrthiltigkeit berechtict die Lelirerinnen zur Ziilassnng zu einer weiteren Priifung. 
aut Grun'l deren siediK I'.efahigung zur selljstaudiaeu Leitung von offentlichen und 
privaten Miidchensehiileu eriangen." (Drs. Schneider and Petersilie ) 

t As previously noted, male candidates must be at least two years older. 



(ir, 

The examination is both theoretical (oral and written) ami practical. 

The written examination consists of a theme in German, work in 
arithmetic; and French; also, for license to teach in middle and higher 
schools for girls, English. 

Applicants for licenses to teach in elementary schools are not forced 
to pass au examination in French. 

The work is selected by the commissary of the provincial school 
consistory upon recommendation of the committee. lu addition to 
the said commissary, the committee is composed of from three to five 
government officials, school directors or high school and normal 
school teachers, ajjpointed by the government president of the 
province. The work selected should be comprehensive in character. 
In translating into or from a foreign tongue, the dictionary may be 
referred to. 

The examination should be finished in one day. It should not last 
more than seven hours. 

Before the beginning of the examination candidates must submit 
proofs of penmanship, using both Latin and German scripts, and a 
specimen of drawing. 

The oral examination is held in the presence of the whole commit- 
tee. It embraces methods and school management and all compulsory 
subjects taught in elementary or middle and higher schools for girls. 

The practical test should be given, if possible, in a school of the 
same class as that for which applicant desires a license. At all events 
the subject must be one included in the course of study for such a 
scho(?l. 

The subject for the practical test should be announced not later 
than twenty-four hours before the class exercises take place. 

A written analysis of the work to be done in each class exercise 
must be submitted. 

Candidates for licenses to teach in elementary schools must have 
the following qualifications: 

1. In Religion (not given). 

2. In Language. Familiarity with the method of teaching reading, 
and the principal points in method of teaching correct oral and 
written expression of thought; some knowledge of master-pieces 
in poetry and a closer acquaintance with the best literature for the 
young. Candidates must be able to state clearly, both orally and 
in writing, subject-matter connected with the elementary school 
i-urricidi'in. 

3. Arithmetic* Factility in the solution of problems in mental and 
written arithmetic; knowledge of common and decimal fractious 
and the different processes used in business transactions; computation 
of areas of surfaces and contents of solids; acquaintance with 
methods of teaching and ability' to explain the same. 

4. History. General knowledge of the principal facts and events 
in universal histoiy, more particular knowledge of the same in Ger- 
man history, and a thorough and connected acquaintance with 
Prussian history. 

5. Geography. In addition to particular knowledge of the Father- 
land, genei-al knowledge of the political geography of the globe and 

*iiVc/i«eK inehifies both arithmatie and algebra. Aritlun<'tik also, used in a tieueral 
sense, iQcludes algebra. 



OG 

the principal points in physical and mathematical geograishy. The 
candidates must be acquainted with the use of atlases, globes, 
tellurians, etc. 

6. Natural history. Knowledge of the imj)ortant types and fami- 
lies in the three kingdoms, also cultivated and j^oisonous plants, 
especially those of the home. Clear insight into a botanical system, 
general knowledge of the other systems of classi&cr.tion, including 
the elements of geology. The candidates must be accjuainted with 
the most useful objects iu teaching natural history, such as charts, etc. 

7. Physics and chemistrj*. A knowledge of the elements of these 
subjects gained through experimentation. 

8. Pedagogics. Knowledge of the fundamental principles of educa- 
tion and instruction; acquaintance with the subject-matter of some of 
the principal works iu pedagogics, and the lives of prominent edu- 
cators of the last 300 years. 

9. Vocal music. The singing readily and in good form of a school, 
religious and national song at sight, and knowledge of method of 
teaching singing. 

10. Drawing, gymnastics and industrial training. An understand- 
ing of methods of teaching and objects used in teaching. 

11. French (voluntary). Correct pronunciation, knowledge of the 
principal grammatical rules, ability to translate an easy selection 
from French into German, and vice verm. 

Candidates for licenses to teach iu middle and higher schools for 
girls (llddchenxchiden) must have the qualifications under 1, ii, 5, 6, 7, 
8, 9, 10, and iu addition: 

1. Language (German). Ease and correctness in oral and written 
expression of thought; a knowledge of general national literature 
and literature for the young; comprehensive knowledge of the mas- 
ter works in poetry, acquaintance with the various forms of prose 
and poetry and usual meters; a thorough understanding of the 
method of teaching reading and the principal grammatical rules 
and methods of teaching general language work. 

2. French and English. Correct pronunciation; knowledge of 
grammatical rules and their applications; ability to translate readily 
the authors read in the course of study for middle and higher schools 
for girls; general knowledge of the literature of the languages. 

3. History. Knowledge of general history; more particular and 
connected knowledge of German, especially Prussian history. 

A record of the standing of applicants in each subject is kept. 
Certificates are given iu accordance with the general result. Appli- 
cants for elementary schools must attain at least the mark " sufficient " 
in religion, language and arithmetic; those for middle and higher 
schools, in addition, the same mark in French and English. 



TWELFTH CHAPTEE. 

SPECIAL CEETinCATES. 

No person can teach in a Prussian public or private school, or in a 
family, without authorization from the government. In addition to 
the licenses for regular teachers, there are special certificates for 
particular lines of work. Such are given to teachers of drawing. 



67 

male and female; teachers of gymnastics, male and female; teachers 
of music, male and female; female teachers of industrial training for 
girls; teachers in deaf and dumb asyla and institutions for the 
blind, etc. 

With the exception of industrial training for girls, all subjects in 
elementary schools ai'e very generally taught by the regular teachers. 
The other special teachers are those for drawing, music and gymnas- 
tics sometimes engaged in elementary schools in large cities. 

Applicants for admission to the examination for these special cer- 
tificates must either have passed the regular teachers' examination or 
prove, in addition to the technical knowledge required, that they 
possess the necessary general qualifications. 

May 20, 1886, there were 34,270 teachers of manual training for 
girls engaged in Prussian elementary schools. Of this number, only 
5,49G had passed the special examinations provided for such teachers; 
26,091 of those who had not passed said examinations were employed 
in rural districts, and were, as a rule, the wives of the regular teach- 
ers. In 1886, the instruction given in this department cost $600,626. 
The average salaries paid were about eleven dollars annually in the 
country and forty-nine dollars and a half in the cities. As will be 
seen, teachers of manual training for girls have little opportunity of 
growing rich by their profession. 

There are special technical schools and special courses in normal 
schools to prepare teachers for particular lines of work, such as draw- 
ing, music, manual training, gymnastics, etc. There are also special 
courses to prepare candidates for the examinations for teachers and 
directors in middle schools. 

Special certificates i7i France are better arranged than in Prussia. 
The time has come in New York for sj^ecial certificates for excellence 
in particular lines of work, such as penmanship, drawing and indus- 
trial training. Special teachers should not V)e required to jjass the 
regular examinations for the higher grades. In addition to the 
technical knowledge, the general requirements for temporary licenses 
are sufficient, and special teachers who possess them should not be 
subjected to oft-repeated examinations. 



THIRTEENTH CHAPTER. 

SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS. 

( K KEISSCHDLINSPEKTOREN. ) 

The following regulations for the Regierungsbezirk of Dusseldorf, 
conciselj' stated, will serve as a delinitiou of the position and duties 
of KreinM-hulin^jjeJcloren or school commissioners.* 

School commissioners, in thAr respective districts, must watch over 
all educational institutions, both public and private, committetl to 
their charge. They must see that all decrees be enforced, and that, 
both with teachers and pupils, patriotism and loyalty to the reigning 

*Iu fities, the StadtsrhuUnitpection performs tla** duties i)f the Krpissr}inlhi:^i)i'ktor. 
Aeer^rdine: ti> dn(>ree of issi, tUe report'* of the Sta/llii<iin!//i!^])effi<ni. ^hoixlii tie ftutniiitred 
to the KreL^.-irlnrlinspektor. He forward.s Hame to KovGrnfiieiit. Decrees from govern- 
ment Jire forwarded through the JCn^isscliuUnspi^klor as well. 



68 

family be aroused and developed. Over the school commissioner 
stands the government; upon an equality with him, the Landi'ath, 
and beneath him school boards, local school inspectors, directors and 
teachers. 

EIGHTS OP THE SCHOOL COMMISSIONER. 

1. To pass judgment upon proposed alterations in school-houses 
and new school buildings; to have a hearing in all disciplinary cases 
affecting the industry or character of his teachers. 

2. In all business matters in his sphere of action, either through 
the Landrath or directly, to make proposals and offer explanations to 
the government. 

3. In proper cases, to seek the assistance of the Landrath. 

■1. To require the assistance of local authorities in matters pertaining 
to his office. 

5. To be present and preside at meetings of school boards. 

6. In accordance with regulations, to grant his teachers fourteen 
days leave of absence. 

7. To be present and preside at all pul)lic examinations of educa- 
tional institutions in his charge. 

8. To supervise all said institutions as directed hereafter. 

DUTIES OF THE SCHOOL COMMISSIONER. 
I. As Regauds Alterations of Districts, Repairs and Play-grounds. 

1. When the school commissioner leai-ns the advisability of altering 
a school district or forming a new district or new classes, he must 
consult the local school inspector and board of education, and after 
thorough investigation, submit jjiopositions to the Landrath. 

2. To see that boards of education make necessary repairs and pro- 
vide properly for the play-grouud and gymnastic appliances. His 
directions must be carried out unless, upon appeal to the government, 
this is deemed inadvisable. 

II. As Regards the Attendance of Pupils. 

He must note carefullj' the attendance of jjupils at every visit to 
each school under his jurisdiction. He must ascertain the reasons for 
irregular attendance. Whether this be through the direct fault of 
teacher in failing to punish the absentees, abuse of the power of 
granting excuses or other cause, he must seek to regulate the same, 
with the assistance of the Landrath. 

III. As Regards The Visitation of Schools. 

He must visit each class in every school under his jurisdiction at 
least once a year. He must examine each class to decide if same be 
doing the work required, rei)orting the result to the government. 

Special attention should be paid to the following points: 

1. Proper classification of graded and ungraded schools; due sej)ara- 
tion of the sexes in mixed schools. 

2. Neatness, system and thoroughness in teachers' records. 

3. Neatness of copy-books and other blank-books used for written 
w'ork; proper oversight of teachers as regards the same. 



69 

4. Good arrangement of all written -work; system and gradation in 
the same, preventing mechanical repetition. 

5. The accomplishment cf the work laid down for each class 
methodically and systematically. 

6. The development of patriotism and loyalty to the government. 

7. Proper discipline, neither too lax nor too severe. 

S. The use of duly authorized text-books; to see that all children 
be supplied with the same. 

9. To note that the necessary school furniture be on hand and that 
same be in good condition; that the school-room be clean, the windows 
whole and the walls properly painted or whitened. 

10. To see if school-houses and out-buildings are in need of repairs; 
if the closets are well situated and kept clean; if play-gi'ound answer 
all requirements and be provided with gymnastic appliances. 

11. To note the behavior of the children outside the school premises. 

12. To ascertain whether teacher be furnished with residence or pay 
rent for the same; whether teacher receive sufficient salary; the repu- 
tation of teacher in the district. 

13. To ascertain whether the local school inspector fulfills his pre- 
scribed duties; his relations with teacher and reputation in the 
district; whether the school records kept by him are in order. 

14. To ascertain if a school library be on hand and if same be fur- 
nished with good books; if not, to take steps toward providing for 
the same. 

15. To ascertain it there be a Forlhildungsschule,''' and if so, the 
attendance upon the same. 

Information under 12 and 13 should be requested privately and 
only from reliable persons. 

IV. As Regards the Teachers and Others Under uis Jurisdiction. 

The school commissioner should endeavor to secure the cooperation 
of his teachers and all school ofBcers by justice and strict impartiality 
iu all his dealings with them, and by a kind interest in their welfare. 
He should seek to carry out those measures his duties dictate, as 
regards teachers, local school insi^ectors and boards of education, 
rather by the exercise of persuasive reasoning than by the authority 
of his office. Recourse should be had to compulsion only when other 
means have failed and circumstances demand the recognition of his 
authority. He should symijathize with his teachers in all their joys 
and sorrows. He should ever be ready to give advice and help when 
called upon. His judgment of teachers should always be marked by 
strict impartiality. Finally, he should do his utmost to encourage 
the advancement of teachers in their chosen profession through con- 
ferences, reading circles and other institutions to perfect their knowl- 
edge and teaching cajjacity. 

V. As Regards Vacancies, Substitutions and Half-day Schools. 

When a school or class Ijecomes vacant, it is the duty of the school 
commissioner to provide a substitute as soon as possible until the 
appointment of a new teacher. Should expenses arise in carrying out 

* Schools for youthful workmen and apprentioes. 



70 

this provision, the Laudrath should be notified, that same be covered, 
lu the case of a school with more than one department, when no sub- 
stitute is at hand, it may be necessary to establish for a time, accord- 
in s' to regulations, the Hall/l.ag.-f.-ichule (half-day school). If in the case 
of a school of one department no substitute is at hand, the school 
commissioner either provides himself as best he can for the emer- 
gency, or advises the government of the case at once. 

VI. As E'EGARDS THE WiDOWS OF TeACHERS. 

Ttie school commissioner must, so far as possible, and in accordance 
with decrees, look out for the families of deceased teachers. 

Vn. As Regards Periodical Eeports. 

The school commissioner must make, in the month of May each 
year, a full report to the government, through the Landrath, showing 
the condition of education in his district. In many parts of the 
kingdom other officers are appointed to perform the duties of school 
commissioners. There are special regulations for reports made by 
such officers. 

VIII. As Kehards Records. 

The school commissioner must keep the following: 

1. Copies of all general decrees relating to his work. 

2. A register of acts relating to each school under his jurisdiction. 

3. A journal of official correspondence received and answered, and 
all official documents. 

4. A record of visitations, with remarks thereon. The forwarding 
of these records may be demanded by the government. In addition, 
each school commissioner must present annually a journal of his 
official travels, showing the number of nights he has been forced to 
sleej) away from home, the number of days spent in traveling, the 
distance traveled, and whether by railway, steamship or public 
highway. 

ANNUAL KEPOKT OF SCHOOL COMMISSION EKS. 

These reports cover, 1, alterations in districts; 2, reports of local 
school inspectors; changes in local school inspectors; manner in which 
their duties are performed; 3, reports of school boards; care of schools 
under their jurisdiction. 

Statistics required are as follows: 

a. The number of schools, classes and pupils at the close of the 
year. 

b. The classification of these schools. 

c. The number of Pi-otestant, Roman Catholic, simultaneous* and 
Jewish schools and classes. 

d. The number of classes of boys, of girls and mixed classes, both 
generally and according to religious confession. 

e. The number of Halblagaacliulen and UalbtagMaasen, that is, half- 
day schools and classes. 

* .Slmultiineous schools are schools in which Roman Catholics and Protestants are 
eilucated together. 



71 

f. The number of Protestant, Eomau Catholic and Jewish pupils, 
and the division of the same according to sex. 

fj. The number of classes and especially the divisions of the 
ungraded schools with eighty pupils, from eighty to 100, exceeding 100. 

h. Increase or decrease in figures of previous year from e to g. 

i. Number of schools or classes not in session. 

j. Condition of school buildings, school furniture and teacher's 
utensils; imjjrovements in the same. 

k. Health conditions in the srhool, regulations affecting the same. 

I. Changes in system, combinations of small schools, mixing or 
division of the sexes, etc. 

w!. The school districts, circumstances; needs of the same. 

St.vtistks as to Teachees. 

1. The number: 

a. Of Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish teachers in the pub- 
lic elementary schools in the district at the close of the year. 

h. Of the Protestant and Itonuin Catholic teachers in simultaneous 
schools. 

c. Of schools which became vacant during the year; for which 
teachers have been found; remaining vacant. 

d. Of old teachers who have received new positions, and of new 
teachers, with the religious faith of the same. 

e. Increase or decrease from previous year in number of Protestant, 
Roman Catholic and Jewish teachers. 

2. The work of schools preparatory to the normal. 

Atte.vdaxoe, Etc. 

1. Conditions of attendance ; obstacles in the way of regularity ; 
reasons for uuexcused absences; means to promote regularity. 

2. Instruction given; conditions of the same; a general and par- 
ticular report. 

3. Interruptions through sickness of teachers or other cause. 

■4. School government and discipline, including religious exercises 
in schools and the attendance of pupils at church. 

5. Patriotic and other school festivals; the part taken by the district 
upon such occasions. 

Teacheks. 

1. Work in and out of school; number of cases teachers have been 
disciplined by the government; cases of discij^line of pupils by 
teachers; the number of cases teachers have been dropped, stated 
seiJarately with reference to decree commanding the same; testimony 
as to recent graduates of normal schools and other new teachers. 

2. Principal and assistant teachers; their relations to each other; 
the mutual relations of assistant teachers. 

3. Kind and number of teachers' conferences, work done by the 
same; libraries for teachers; condition and use of the same. 

4. Extra work done by teachers; preparation of candidates for uor- 
tnal schools and other private teaching; work as organist or sexton, 
as conductor of vocal societies, treasurer of certain funds and 
agencies, occupation in arboriculture, culture of bees, etc. 



72 

5. Financial matters; salaries of teachers, benefits, endowments, 
widow aud orphan pensions and insurance societies for teachers. 

Private Elemestaky Schools. 

1. Number of Protestant, Roman Catholic, simultaneous and Jewish 
schools and classes; also the systems as regards classification at close 
of year; 

2. Number of jjupils in attendance altogether and in accordance 
with religious faith; 

3. Increase or decrease in one aud two from previous year; 

4. Courses of study and organization of these schools; conduct of 
teachers employed. 

High and Other Schools not Directly Under the Government. 

1. Number of schools, classes and pupils at the close of the year as 
follows: 

a. The public and private schools; 

b. The Protestant, Roman Catholic, simultaneous and Jewish 
schools; 

c. Schools for boys, for girls, mixed schools; 

d. Number of pupils in the above according to religious faith and 
according to ses. 

2. Organization: The number of boys' schools following the course 
of study of the Gymnasium, the Realschule and the middle school; 
the systems of classification of girls' and boys' schools; the teachers 
employed. 

3. Changes in organization and new arrangements. 

4. Boards of education and those paying for maintenance of the 
school; relations of the saree to the school. 

5. Attendance. 

6. Instruction; conditions of the same; general and particular 
report; school books. 

7. School government and discipline; devotional exercises in school; 
church attendance of pujjils. 

8. Patriotic and other school festivals; part taken in the same by 
the public. 

9. Work of the teachers in and outside school; relations of teachers 
to other officials of the school; extra employment of teachers; 
conferences. 

10. Condition of school buildings and teaching apparatus; inci'eases 
and improvements in the same. 

11. Financial conditions; teachers' salaries, benefits, endowments, 
stipends, etc. 

If institutions have printed course of study a copy of the same 
must be forwarded with report. 

12. Number of Foiihihhingsschvlen* and Kleinkinderschulenf and num- 
ber of pupils in attendance; increase or decr<»ase from previous year; 
condition aud work done by these institutions. 

' FurthiUhmiifffliulcn are schools for young workmen and apprentices. These schools 
Ko on with elementary school work, taking up especially those lines which will be of 
practical use to pupils learning trades. 

t K leinkiniii^-xrliHlrn are Kiiutergiirti'ii and other institutions for children under school 
ajic. 



Supervision of Schools in Januaey, 1889. 

The government districts (Regieriingdiczirke) in Prussia are subdi- 
vided iuto school-circles {Schulaufsichlakreise). A government official 
is charged with the supervision of the common schools in these school- 
circles, either as his sole occupation or in connection vs'ith other duties. 
In the majority of cases, school-circles correspond with political- 
circles. Nevertheless, this is so arranged that Protestant and Roman 
Catholic schools have generally inspectors of their own religious 
faith. To insure this, school-circles are often formed according to 
dioceses. 

The conditions of supervision in 1889 {"Preuf^si^rhe StalklU' lOJ") 
are given in the following table: 



Number of school-circles . 
Number of school-districts 

Number of schools 

Number of classes 



Number of Protestant schools 

Number of Eoman Catholic schools 

Number of Jewish schools 

Number of simultaneous schools 



Number of Protestant teachers 

Number of Eoman Catholic teaehen 
Number of Jewish teachers 



Total . 



SCHOOL-CIKCLES. 



As princi- Assecond- 
pal ooou- I ary occu- 
pation of I pation of 
supervis- I supervis- 
ing officer. , ingofflcer. 



240 
11,700 
13,683 
30,846 



Number of public schools 13,052 

Number of private schools ; 631 



4, 265 

8,731 

148 

539 



8,401 

18,2SU 
235 



946 
19,605 
22,510 
51,013 



21,429 
1,081 



Togetlier. 



1,180 
31,365 
36,193 
81,859 

34,481 
1,712 




42,186 

4,392 

338 



26,916 46,916 



50,587 

22,672 

573 



73, 832 



The nest census will be taken in November, 1890, but full statistics 
of the Prussian elementary schools will not be published in all proba- 
bility before 1892. The last census dates from December 1, 1885. 
Full official statistics based upon this census were not published 
until 1889. 

It is to be noted that in the matter of supervision, Prussia lacks 
uniformity. A large proportion of the school-circles come under the 
jurisdiction of government officials who are charged with other work 
in addition to that of supervising the schools. 

School commissioners, having no other occupation, have been 
appointed in districts where two languages are spoken, in East and 
West Prussia, in Posen, Schleswig-Holsteiu, in the government dis- 
tricts of Aix-la-Chapelle and Oppeln, in school-circles where the 
matter could not be intrusted adv.intageously to other officials, and, 
in general, where the government felt anxious to raise the standard 
of i^rimary education. 

10 



74 

The government officials, charged with the supervision of the 
schools as a secondary occupation, are generally clergymen, in the 
countrj', and school-councilors or city school inspectors in the cities. 
This is the case in Konigsberg, Danzig and Berlin (here eight city 
inspectors assist the school-councilors), in Breslau, Liegnitz, Erfurt 
(here the municipal government supervises the schools), in Altona, 
Kiel, Hanover, Cassel, Frankfurt am Main, Wiesbaden (here the city 
Schuldeputalion suijervises the schools), in Barmen, Crefeld, Diissel- 
dorf, Elberfeld, Cologne, Duisburg (here there is a special Stadl- 
schulinspeclion) 

Occasionally school-circle supervision is intrusted to a director 
(Rector) as in Dortmund ; a normal school director as in Dillenburg ; 
a government school-councilor as in Treves. 

The school-circles {Schulaiifmchtnlreise) are again subdivided into 
school districts under the supervision of local school insi^ectors, 
generally the clergyman or mayoi-. Often, however, the local inspec- 
tion is done directly by the school-circle supervising officers. In 
1889, school commissioners {Kreii<t<fhulini<pektoren) were charged also 
with this local inspection in the case of 7,08-1 schools. 

Although all officials with duties similar to those of school com- 
missioners {Krei><schulins2}ekioren) are highly educated and have passed 
through a long period of training for their work, yet the lack of 
uniformity in the appointment of school- circle supervising officers is a 
great disadvantage. 

The annual outlay for government supervision is as follows : 

Salaries of government councilors and helpers $99,534 52 

Salaries of school commissioners (KreAitschulinspekloren) . 284,872 86 
Salaries of other officers with duties similar to those of 

school commissioners 125 , 595 24 

Appropriation to raise the standard of inspection in West 

Prussia, Posen and Silesia 47,619 04 



$557,621 66 



School commissioners {Ereisxchulim^peldoren) receive at first $600 
(2,400 marks) annually, with an allowance for rent and fuel, and 
$300 (1,200 marks) for traveling and other exjjenses. The salary of 
$000 increases gradually with the vears of service.* 



FOURTEENTH CHAPTER. 

TEACHERS' .CONFERENCES. 

These may be classified as follows: 

1. Those held once a month, excepting July, for all teachers of a 
city school (Berlin) under the direction of the principal. These are 
held outside of school hours. 

2. Those held eight time a year, or, if possible, once a month, in 
conference districts embracing fifteen teachers. The meetings are 

* The average salary of school eommissiouers is $886.H7, with an allowance for rent 
and fuel, and $300 for traveling and other expenses. 



presided over by the school commissioner. The conference lasts 
generally one daj-, sometimes half a day. 

3. Those held once a year by normal school faculties with teachers 
in neighboring' schools. The conference lasts one day (decree of 
September 20, 1880). 

4. Those held at least once a year in each school commissioner 
district, under the direction of the school commissioner. Conference 
lasts also one day. 

In all cases attendance is compulsory, and, in the last three, schools 
are closed to afford teachers the opjjortunity to attend. In the last 
two cases, allowances are made to cover traveling expenses, and 
special railway tickets are issued. A record of the attendance and 
work done is made in each instance, and the record is submitted to 
headquarters. 

At these conferences, class exercises are held, methods of teaching 
are discussed, school organization, classification and discipline receive 
attention, the decrees of the ministry touching public education are 
announced and explained, and questions of general interest to educa- 
tors are debated. 

I attended several of these conferences, and was much impressed 
by the depth of thought in the papers read, the addresses and dis- 
cussions. Vocal and instrumental music are prominent features at 
these meetings. Imagine an orchestra of twenty or more pieces, 
wholly composed of teachers, and able to play difficult classical 
music. I heard such orchestras several times. 

The i^rincipal conferences generally conclude with a large dinner, 
which adds not a little to the prevalent feeling of good fellowshij) 
among the teachers. The funny man is always there. For many 
weeks he husbands his resources to make a hit uj^on this occasion. 

At one of the last conferences I attended, he produced what he 
called a " Drehlied." This was a song composed by himself and printed 
within concentric cii'cle.s. While the circles were large, the teachers 
did well, but as they grew smaller, the paper could not be turned fast 
enough, and all became very dizzy in attempting it. 



FIFTEENTH CHAPTER. 
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE AND MISCELLANEOUS EEGULATIONS. 

The teacher in Prussia has much more authority over his pupils 
than the. teacher in New York. He exorcises this authority both in 
and out of school, and it covers, also, children of other classes than his 
own in the same school, but not pupils of other schools. 

Corporal punishment is allowed, but same must not be carried out 
to such an extent that the health of the pupil suffer in consequence. 
If the pupil be too severely dealt with, the teacher is disciplined by 
the Provinzial-SchidcoUegium. Very severe cases subject teachers to 
fines of 300 thalers* or imprisonment for three years. If the injury 
be isermanent, the teacher is imprisoned for five years in a peniten- 
tiary or for one year in a State prison. The former confinement brings 

* A thaler is equal to 71.4 cents. 



76 

with it generally tlie loss oi citizenship. Ordinary imprisonment 
does not necessarily involve these consequences. Imprisonment 
from two to ten years follows in cases where injuries were given 
intentionally. 

If death result from injuries received, the fierson inflicting these 
injuries is imprisoned not less than three years in a house of correc- 
tion {Zuchthaua) or three months in a State prison (Gefdngnisa). Cir- 
cumstances under which the injury was given receive careful 
attention. 

Fines, up to 2,000 thalers for the benefit of the person injured, may 
be inflicted. 

An ofScial, teacher or other emj^loye of the government, who, in the 
exercise of his office, inflicts or permits the infliction of serious inju- 
ries, is imprisoned for not less than three months. If there are 
extenuating circumstances, the imprisonment may be shortened to one 
day or a fine of .300 thalers. If the injury be exceptionally severe, 
imprisonment for two years follows. Extenuating circumstances may 
limit this imprisonment to three months. 

The following decrees regulate the infliction of corporal punish- 
ment by school teachers: 

1. Corporal jjunishment should be resorted to only when other dis- 
ciplinary means have failed, and then only in cases of obstinate 
persistence in lying, great stubbornness and disobedience, gross 
immoi-ality and persistent lack of industry. 

Teachers are not permitted to form the habit of resorting to cor- 
poral punishment daily and hourly. When possible, little children 
and girls of all ages should not be punished in this way. 

2. In the case of little children less than 9 years of age, the 
teacher must use a light switch; in other cases, a pliant stick not 
thicker than the little finger may be employed. 

3. Girls are to be hit upon the back alone, bojs upon the back or 
the Gesdss. The force of blows must be moderated. In inflicting 
corporal punishment the clothing must not be removed. 

i. The use of a thicker stick or rule, hitting with hand, fist or 
book in the face and head, hair-pulling, ear-twisting or that of other 
parts of the body, punching in the breast, back and head, or other 
like punishments, are forbidden. 

.5. Pupils are not to receive corporal punishment while at their 
desks, but in an open space of school room. It should be adminis- 
tered at the close of the recitation hour, never in the hour devoted 
to religious studies. 

(). Switch and stick should be in teacher's closet during the hours 
for instruction, not directly at hand. 

7. The grounds and extent of the punishment inflicted must be 
recorded in the teacher's register. 

8. In cases requiring very severe measures, whether faults were 
committed on or off the school premises, the teacher should notify 
the local school inspector and inflict the punishment in his presence. 
In large schools such matters are brought before a conference of the 
teachers, and the punishment is inflicted in presence of the director 
{Rector). 

9. When teacher has been too severe in inflicting corporal punish- 
ment, he is disciplined by the Provimial-Schulcollerjiuvi. Serious cases 



77 

subject liim to penalties fixed by the penal code. School inspectors 
must forward well grounded complaints, even though injuries inflicted 
be not serious, to the Froviinial-Schidcoliegium. 

10. Teachers often found guilty of excess in inflicting' corporal 
punishment, in addition to the other penalties, forfeit, for long or 
short periods, the authority to inflict corporal punishment 

11. To lessen complaints brought against teachers, disciplinary 
measures should be often discussed, and all teachers, especially the 
younger, should study thoroughly the decrees relating thereto. 

It is to be noted that no actions against teachers can be brought, 
either in civil or criminal courts, except in cases where a child has 
received some real bodily injui'y, wound or bruise. This is also the case 
when local school inspectors and school commissioners have inflicted 
corporal punishment. 

A glance at the regulations for pupils in higher schools shows that 
they are closely watched at all times: 

1. If the school director ascertains that pupils are living in a pen- 
sion which he deems unsuital>le, it is his duty to notify the parents or 
guardians of such pupils. If no attention be ])aid to this notification, 
the pupils are expelled. 

2. Pupils from other districts can not select nor change their boai'd- 
ing-place without the authority of the school-director. 

3. Pupils from other districts are under the special oversight of the 
Ordiiiariiis. 

4 Pupils who absent themselves from the city or village over night, 
even though they lose no study or instruction-hour, must have the 
permission of the Ordinanux or school-director. This applies to jiupils 
from other districts not dwelling with pai-ents. 

5. Pupils must have permission of OnUiiariu» or school-director to 
attend theaters and balls. Pupils residing with their parents at home 
must procure the permission of parents to attend theaters, and can only 
attend public balls in the company of parents or guardians. 

6. Pupils who give private lessons must procure the permission of 
OrJinariu!< or school-director. 

No outsider is permitted to enter or disturb a public school under 
five thalers fine or imprisonment. 

Teachers must be on hand fifteen minutes before school opens. 
Tardiness should be closely watched. 

Children may not be kept at school so as to lose midday meal, nor 
should they be kept after school until dark. 

Children are not permitted to give presents to teachers, nor are 
they allowed to take up collections. 

Children under school age are not allowed to be present in the 
school-room during school sessions. The teacher is not ]5ermitted to 
wear slippers during school-hours. 

The pupils are forbidden to frequent taverns, confectioneries, saloons. 
They are not allowed to attend dramatical, musical and acrobatic per- 
formances, except in the comjniny of parents or guardians. They are 
encouraged to protect useful animals and government property, such 
as railways and telegraph lines. They are warned against the care- 
less use of firearms. 

Teachers should watch over the private reading of pupils. They 
should be protected from obscene literature. 



78 

Children of school age are not allowed to peddle; to sing or play 
upon any musical instrument in the street; to declaim in the street or 
take j^art in any dramatical joerformances. Those who take dancing 
lessons or set up ten-pins may not be kept out later than 10 o'clock 
in the evening. Proprietoi-s of public places are forbidden to permit 
the frequentation of children of school age, and to give or sell to such 
children sj)irits or beer. 

Observations. 

Visitors to Prussian elementary schools will often notice slight 
transgressions of the disciplinary regulations, such as ear-pulling and 
the like {vide ftub 4). Teachers thoroughly understand how far it is 
safe to go without danger of being rejjorted to headquarters. The 
regulations give them a field which, according to our ideas, is, to say 
the least, broad enough. 

Discipline is certainly far better, generally speaking, in German 
than in French schools. This may be attributed to the difference in 
the French and German characters. Many find an explanation in the 
abolition by law of corporal punishment in French schools.* 



SIXTEENTH CHAPTER. 

APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS. 

The folhjwiug regulations concerning the appointment of teachers 
are taken from the decrees of the government at Diisseldorf: 

The jiower of appointment to a newly created position or a vacancy 
is vested in the government. Boards of education recommend three 
candidates, and if one of the three be a suitable person for the place, 
he is appointed. No position may be filled without the decision of 
the government. This rule apjilies also to assistant teachers. 

I. V.\CAXCY Occasioned by De.ath of Teacher. 

1. The board of education (Schulmr^land) must give notice to the 
school commissioner {KreinKehulinapektor or StadtschuUiiitpeciion) with 
date of death and proposal for temporary substitution. The same 
notice must also be served on the Landrath,i]iaA, proper provision may 
be made for teacher's family. 

2. The school commissioner must rejjort to the government without 
delay the fact of the vacancy, stating provisions made by him for 
temporary substitution. He must also inform the Landralh who the 
temporary substitute is and whether costs arise from substitution. 

3. The Landralh should then endeavor, so far as same lie in his pro- 
vince, to regulate the jiaymeut of deceased teacher's salary to the 
family for the month of death, and a month of grace, where costs have 
arisen, or for the month of death and three months' grace where there 
are no costs. 

II. Vacancies Auising from Other C.\dses. 

4. Teachers are permitted to abandon positions only at the close of 
a term and after three months' notice. Tbe shortening of the term of 
three months can take place only with consent of the school board, 

' Iq France. Italy and Belgium, corporal punishment is forbidden by Law. As Buisson 
said in 1875, the precision ot the Prussian disciplinary regulations shocks us. 



79 

and through the school commissioner and Landrath, the government. 
This permission will not be granted unless provisions are made to 
carry on the school without interruption. 

5. The notice is to be given in writing by teacher to school board; 
by school board to school commissioner and Landrath without delay. 
If change has not been directed by the government and therefore 
known, the school commissioner must notify the government directly. 
The Landrath proceeds at once to provide for the regulation of teachers' 
accounts, that if possible the same may be closed at his departure. 

6. Teachers prepared in the state normal schools and under the 
jurisdiction of the government disti'ict of Diisseldorf are obliged to 
remain in the same position to which the government has appointed them a 
period of three years. Within this period they have no authority to 
give notice of change, unless directed by the government to do so. 

III. The Filling of Vacancies through Duly Adthorized Teachers. 

7. So soon as a position becomes vacant through death or other 
cause, the school board {Schulvorstand) advertises the fact in, at 
least, the ofBcial paper. Three weeks thereafter the school board 
decides upon the three names to be presented to the government. 
Within three days the names of these three candidates with certifi- 
cates and biographical sketches must be forwai-ded to the school 
commissioner. In exceptional cases, the government extends this 
period of three weeks. 

The names of candidates must be given al]ihabetically, and opposite 
each name the statement whether candidate assumes a definite or 
provisory position. 

In case less than three candidates apply, this fact is to be stated. 

8. The school board may express a preference for some particular 
candidate, though this does not interfere in the least with the power 
of appointment vested in the government, and may not be considered. 

9. The school board must forward propositions, names of candi- 
dates, certificates and biographical sketches to the government 
through the school commissioner and Landrath without delay. School 
commissioner and Landrath may express opinions as to projjositions 
made. Care should be taken that all this matter reach the govern- 
ment within eight days from date notice was forwarded to school 
commissioner by the school board. 

10. In case no candidates apply within the time stated, the school 
board notifies the government through the same officials, abandoning 
the right ■< if j^roposing names or staling proposed steps in case time 
be extended. 

11. School boards are obliged, under penalties, to transact this 
business within the time fixed. School commissioners must notify 
the Landrath of fruitless attempts to do so. If within six weeks from 
date of vacancy the government has received no jsroiDosals, the 
vacancy is tilled by the government. 

12. All proposals must be without conditions. It is not jsermitted 
school boards to engage for a certain definite time or provisionally. 
The nature of the engagement rests with the government. 

It is to be noted that the provisional engagement of a teacher does 
not last longer than six years, according to law. Consequently a 



80 

teacher once engag-ed dofiaitely cau not be reengaged provisionally 
unless through fault he lias lost the right to definite engagement or 
abandons himself this right in seeking a new position. 

13. In appointing a teacher the government fixes definitely the time 
he is to take charge of his new position and enter upon his new duties. 
The date of entrance upon discharge of duties must be reported in 
each case by the board of education to the school commissioner, and 
by school commissioner, through the Landrath, to the government. 

rV. The Filling of Vacancies Temporarily through Candidates. 

14. It is contrary to law to till vacancies b3' candidates who have 
not passed the teachers' examinations. Such may be employed tem- 
porarily, with permission of the government, when there are no duly 
authorized teachers at hand. In each case a biographical sketch 
with oiScial certificates as to character and qualifications is to be sub- 
mitted to the government through the school commissioner. These 
cases are exceptions and occur only when the efforts to secure duly 
authorized teachers have proved fruitless and the government has 
made no provision therefor. 

1.5. The cmjoloyment of these candidates is only authorized under 
the oversight and responsibility of a duly authorized teacher. It is 
regarded as an experiment and is always subject to annulment by the 
school commissioner without notice. Regular contracts can not be 
made with these candidates. They receive a written statement of 
their duties and salary from the school board, with the condition that 
they may be dismissed at any time by the school commissioner, but 
that they themselves must give at least six weeks' notice before 
abandoning their work. 

16. Dismissal of such candidates rests with the school commissioner 
who is forced to report to the government in each case. 

V. Sobstitdtes Ddkino Vacations and Leaves of Absence. 

17. This is regulated by the school commissioner and school board. 
Expenses arising therefrom are settled with the assistance of the 
Landrath. 

Regulations for other government districts are substantially the same. 



SEVENTEENTH CHAPTEK. 

LEAVES OF ABSENCE OF TEACHERS. 

The following is a brief statement of the rule for the government 
district of Diisseldorf : 

1. Schools may be closed or sessions shortened by teachers without 
the express permission of the projier authorities only in cases of 
sudden illness or other necessary cause, and then said authorities are 
to be notified at once. 

2. Permission to close schools or shorten sessions should never be 
granted without good and sufficient reasons. 

2. The LokahcliuUm^pcldor (local school inspector) has authority to 
grant a leave of absence of from one to three days. When more than 
one day, the school commissioner must be notified. 



81 

4. The school commissioner (in cities the Sfa(Uschnli7ispeclion) has 
authority to grant a leave of absence of from four to fourteen days. 
The local school inspector, except in most pressing cases, must request 
this permission in writing anil await a written answer. 

5. The government alone has power to grant a leave of absence 
exceeding fourteen days. Requests therefor must be submitted by 
the local school inspector through the school commissioner and 
Landralh, both of whom must give their opinion of the matter. 

6. Requests for leaves of absence on account of sickness must be 
accompanied with statement of physician as to patient's condition. 

If permission is requested to visit some sanitarium away from home, 
the oiScial physician of the district must certify as to the necessity 
therefor. 

7. Request must contain information touching provisions for sub- 
titute during the leave of absence. Unless said iDrovisions are 
satisfactory, the leave of absence will not be granted. 

In most pressing cases, the local school inspector may arrange for 
substitute or for close of school during leave of absence. 

8. Leaves of absence when school should be in session for the pur- 
pose of consulting members of the government upon various school 
matters should not be granted as a rule. 

9. The leave of absence can not begin before the receipt of per- 
mission. At its close the teacher must report to the local school 
inspector. Said official is to notify the school commissioner in case 
the bounds of the leave of absence be overstepped. The school 
commissioner notifies the government through the Landrath. 

10. Leaves of absence from the district during vacations require no 
notification, unless absence is to exceed three days, in which case 
teacher is to notify the local school inspector, giving particulars. 

11. Fixed penalties regulate the transgression of these rules by 
teachers. 

12. The government may grant leaves of absence up to six months 
in case of sickness. Districts must pay costs for substitution. 

Regulations for other government districts do not differ essentially 
from those for that of Diisseldorf. 

CONCLUSION. 

The superiority of the Prussian system of elementary education, as 
compared with that of New York, may be summed up in one sentence. 
Prussia sends all her rhildren between fixed ages to school, and protects 
them lohile'there from the imposition of had work. Frederick the Great 
aimed to accomplish this in 1703. From his day the system has been 
perfected gradually, and stands to-day without a rival. 

Since 1871, France has followed in the footsteps of her rival, and 
the standard of work done in elementary schools has advanced with a 
rapidity which seems almost incredible. 

lu 1888, the cost of public education in Prussia, including the 
secondary, trade schools, technical schools and universities, was reck- 
oned at $1.7717 per caput of total population. Allowances for rent and 
fuel slightly increased these figures. Army and navy schools were 
not included. 

11 



82 

The cost of public education in New York in 1888 (census of 
1880) was figured at three dollars and eight cents ^jer caput of total 
population. 

Every impartial person must admit that Prussia secures in good 
results the full value of the money expended, and that New York does 
not. 

The methods in use in Prussia can not be adopted as a whole in 
New York. This is clear. Nevertheless, wise legislation would secure 
for us similar advantages, as the example of France, a sister republic, 
demonstrates. 

Our model elementary schools would then become the rule, and not 
the exception, as at present. 



NOTE TO PAGES •,",l AND 30. 



Accordiiiir to the decree of March 31, 1883, Prussian High 
Schools are divided as follows : — 

, /-, ■ J J n \ Oiimiiasii'n. — Nine years' course. 

' Prodyinnii.fwn. — Seven years' course. 

(vu\l\^-[^^X^^S ^'-"■kllPnnnsicn. — Nine years' course. 
( Rcalproqninimsieii. — Seven yrs' course. 
Without ( Oicrrealsrhulen. — Nine years' course. 
Latin ( Reahchiilen. — Seven years' course. 
3. ndhere Bilrgerschtilcn — Without Latin. — Si.x years' course. 

"Wiesc's most valuable work " Verordnnngen vnd Gesctzc fiir die 
Iwlicreii Scliuleii in Preussen," published in two volumes at Berlin iu 
ISSG by Wiegandt and Gnebeu describes these High Schools in full. 

As stated on jiage 29, the principal divisions are Gymnasien and 
Realgi/ninasicn. 

Gyinnnsien. : The latest official course of stud}', as given on pao'e 
29, shows the following changes : — 

Religious Instruction, 19 instead of 30 hours weekly. 

Language (German), 

Latin, 

Greek, 

French. 

History aud Geography, 

Mathematics, 

Natural History, 

Pliysics, 

Penmau.ship, 

Progtjmnasicn : These are G)jmnasicii without Prima, or the 
last two years. The course is seven years. The advanced class fits 
for Prima in Gymnasien. 

Realg'ymnasien : The latest official course of study, as given on 
page 30, shows the following changes : — 



21 


•' 20 


77 •' 


■• 86 


40 ■■ 


" 42 


21 


" 17 


28 ■• 


•• 2.5 


34 •• 


" 33 


10 •• 


• 8 


8 ■• 


■ 


4 •■ 


■■ (i 



Religious Instruction, 


19 instead of 20 hours 


weekly. 


Language (German), 


27 •• 


,, .,(, ,, 


'• 


Latin, 


54 " 


" 44 •■ 


•• 


JIathematics, 


44 •■ 


" 47 ■• 


" 


Natural History, ) 
Physics, '- 
Chemistry, \ 


30 •■ 


" 34 •• 




Penmanship, 


4* ■■ 


" 7 




Drawing, 


18 " 


" 20 ■■ 


** 



* According to Wiese this should hv. 4 instead of 5 as j^iveu on patje 30. 



86 

Realprogyimiasien : The relation between Realgymnasien and 
Rcalproriijmnasien is the same as that between Gijmnasien and Pro- 
gijmnasien. 

Oberrealschulen. : The following is the list of the subjects studied 
and the weekly division of time : — 

(/) (?) (3) U) {r>) (<J) (7) {S) (9) 

Religious Instruction, 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 

German, 44433 3 333 

French, 88866005 5 

English, ---,554444 

History and Geography, 3 3 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 

Mathematics. 56666 5 555. 

Natural History. 2 2 2 2 2 3 - - - 

Physics, -----4433 

Chemistry, ------333 

Penmanship, 22 2------ 

Drawiug, 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 

29 29 30 30 30 32 32 32 32 

Instruction in singing and gymnastics corresi^onds with that 
given in Gijmnasien. 

Realsclmlen : The relation between these schools and Oberreal- 
sclivhn corresponds generally with that between Profj)jninasien and 
Gyninasien. 

Hohere Biirgerschulen : — The following is list of subjects studied 
and weekly division of time : — 

(/) (2) {3} (i) (5) (6) 

Religious Instruction, 3 2 2 2 2 2 

German, 4 4 4 3 3 3 

French, S 8 8 6 5 5 

English, - - - 5 4 4 

History and Geography, 3 3 4 4 4 4 

Mathematics, 4 5 5 5 5 5 

Natural History. 2 3 3 3 5 5 

Penmanship. 3 3 2 - - - 

Drawing, 2 2 3 2 2 3 

29 30 30 30 30 30~ 
Instruction in singing and gymnastics corresponds with that given 
in Gymnasien. 

Gymnasien proper fit for the universities; the other high schools, 
for professional technical schools, for a business life and for learning 
a trade. 



INDEX 

A . Paoes 
Acknowledgments ._ 1 

Algebra 51 , 58, C5 

Alpliabet nielhod forbidden in teaching reading 10, o3, 40 

Apparalus 18, 20, 33, S3. 39, 44. 45, 57 

Arithmetic 17. 34, 41, 51, 58, 05 

Area of window openings at least 1-5 of floor space .24 

Average experience of elementary teachers 49 

Average number of pupils falling to one teacher 27 

B. 
Blackboards 20, 2G, 33, 39, 44 

C. 
Chemistry 5 1 , 59, GO 

Children under 12 forbidden to work in factories or mines _ 4 

Chiklien between ]3*«nd 14 restricted to six hours a day ._ 4 

Children, number of school age in public and private school.? 7 

Children, total number of .school age .-. 7, 8 

Children foreign, number attending public elemenlar}' schools 16 

Compulsory education laws 2, 4. 7. 8, 81 

Conferences of teachers 74, 75 

Corporal punishment in Piu.ssia 75-78 

Corporal punishment forbidden in France, Italy and Belgium 78 

Cost of public education in Prussia 12, 13. 81, 83 

Cost of industrial training for girls in Prussian elementary .schools 67 

Courses of study _ 2, 8, 9, 31-49, 49-52, 55-60 

Course of study for ungraded schools,. 8, 9, 32-37 

Course of study for schools with two deparl?nenls 38-43 

Course of study in schools jireparatory to the normal 50-53 

Course of study in normal schools 55G0 

Cubic feet of air, 'iniiuiiiiiiii of for each juipil 24 

Cultivation of a taste for good reading 17. 33, 34, 40, 50, 58, G5 

Cousin, report of 3, 3 

D. 

Deaf and. dumb a.syla... 29, 31 

Dialects... .15 

Disadvantage of unequal distiibulinn of population in New York 27 

Disciplinary regulations 75-78 

Distil nee of pupils from their schools £7 

Drawing 18, 19, 34, 41. 42. 51. 53. 59 

Dullards, school for 3 

E. 

Elementary schools, maintenance of the State's first duty 2 

Elemenlarj' schools must not be closed in time of war 2 

Elementary schools, intiiiiiiiiin of instruction in 3 

Elemenlary school teachers and elergyirien freed from payment of taxes 3 

Elementary school teachers have G weeks' instead of 3 years' military service 3 



8g 

?AOES 

Elementary schools, eight alphabets are taught in 14 

Examinations 4, 5, 6, 8, 29, 49, 53-55, GO-63, 04-66, 67 

Examination of females for licenses to direct public and private schools for girls. 64 

F. 

Females may begin teaching at 18 64 

Floor space, miinmuni of for each pupil 23, 24 

FurthilduiKjsschuleii 6, 73 

French ...53, 60, 61, C5, 66 

G. 

Geography 17, 34, 35, 42. 51, 55, 59. 65, 06 

Geometry 34, 41,51, 58, 59 

German script 13-15, 32 

German language used since April 1. 1»89 in teaching all sulijccis except 

religion 15-16 

German script a barrier between Germany and other civilized nations 14 

Gymnaneii 6, 29, 49, 53 

H. 

Half-day schools 38, 48 

High schools 6, 12, 29, 30, 49. 53 

History-. 17,35,43, 51, 55, 58 

I. 

Industrial training for girls 18. 36, 43, 66, 67 

Insane Asyla '. ...2, 29, 30 

Institutions for dnllards 2 

Institutions for the blind.... 2, 29. 30 

Institutions for children under school age ..27, 28 

Institutions for children of school age 28-31 

Interest of the general public in school work 20 

K. 

Krippen 27 

Kiltchrbeiriiliranistaltiii 27 

Klei iiki ndcrsch nleii 27, 72 

Kiinhryarteii .28, 72 

Kiiiihrgdrti II are private institutions in Prussia 28 

L. 

Language used in teaching foreign children 15, 16 

Language work '^..13, 17, 33,34. 40, 41, 50,51, 54, 58, 61, 02. 65 

Latin ..29, 30, .50, 60, 61 

Laws to lighten the burdens of local taxation 1], 13 

Leaves of absence of teachers 80, 81 

Leaves of absence of 3 days or less granted by local school inspector ..£0 

Leaves of absence up to 14 days granted by school commissioner 81 

Leaves of absence up to six mouths granted by government 81 

Libraries for teachers 20 

Libraries in normal schools 57 

Libraries in preparatory schools 50, 51 

M. 

Males may begin teaching at 20 60, 64 

Male elementary teachers are normal school graduates 52. 63 

Mathematics - ..-17, 34, 41, 51, 58, 65 



S5 

Middle schools 2. 5, 29, 30, 49, 53 

Music 17, 18, 35, 36, 43, 53, 60 

N. 

Natural history ..17, 34, 35, 42, 43, 51, 55, 59 

New school buildings ..26, 27 

New York elementary school system, inferiorities of 2, 3, 4, 81, 82 

Normal ili visions of elementary schools 31, 49 

Normal schools. 2.5, 52-60, 63, 64 

Normal schools for females 63, 64 

Number of boys in middle and high schools ...30 

Number of girls receiving a secondary education 30 

Number of school age in public elementary schools 7 

Number of school age in private schools, middle schools, &c 7 

Number of cases of truancy 7 

Number excused through lack of school accommodations 7, 8 

Number excused for other causes 7, 8 

O. 

Orphan asy la. 29, 30 

Orthography now taught dates from the school year, 1880, '81 15 

Overcrowded school-rooms .26, 27 

P. 

Patriotism 19, 35, 42, 67 

Pedagogics 53, 57, 58, 66 

Penmanship 14, 15, 33, 40, 51, 55. 59 

Pensions of teachers 2. 11 

Percentage of foreign children in Prussian elementary schools 15. 16 

Percentage of male and female teachers 48, 03 

Phonetic spelling 15 

Physics .51 . 59. 66 

Physical training 18, 36, 43. 52, 59 

Play-ground 23, 25 

Practice schools .53. 55, 57 

Preparatory .schools 2, 5. 49-52 

Promotions in graded schools 9 

Prussian .schools not to be confounded with oilier German schools 1 

Prussian elementary schools are free... 10, 11 

Prussia is divided into 14 Provinces 1 

Prussia has no code of public instruction 1 

Prussian. gradations of public instruction adapted to political divisions 1 

Prussian elementary school system, superiorilics of.. . 2. 3. 81, 82 

Prussian compulsory education laws ..2, 4. 7, 8, 81 

Pveiissische Stittittfik 101. the latest complete official statistics . . 7 

Private schools.. 8, 29 

Privies 25, 27 

Progress made in French schools since 1871 81, 82 

Pupils division of according to religion 22, 48 

Pupils, division of accordin.g to language 15, 16 

Punils, division of according to sex — 48 

Pupils must learn to read and write the Roman script. .. _ .13-15. 33. 41 

Pupils have six mouths' practice upon entering school in reading and writ- 
ing the German script 32 



90 

{■ages 

Pupils excused through lack of school accommodations 7, 8 

Public instiuction must be secured ii gainst all casualties 3 

R. 

Ratio of male to female teachers _ 43, 63 

Bfalfft/miianicn G, 29, 30, 49 

References 1 

Reformatories _ _ A, 29, 30 

Relative distribution of Pruss-ian elementary public schools 48 

Religion, division of children according to 22, 48 

Regulations fixing limit of pupils in each class £6, 27, 31 

Religious instruction __ 21, 22 

Religious instruction is compulsory 21 

Religious instruction is impartial 21 

Religious instrucion, summary of decrees relating to 21, 22 

Results obtained in ungraded schools 9 

S. 

School age _ 4 

School buildings 25. 26 

Scliool commissioners, qualifications of _ ...3, 5, 6 

School commissioners, regulations ci nccrning 67-75 

School commissioners, rights of 68 

School commissioners, duties of „. 68-72 

School commissioner's order alterations, and repairs.. C8 

School commissioners visit the schools.. 68, 69 

School commissioners regulate attendance 68 

School comini sioners provide substitutes 69 

School commissioners make periodic reports 70 

School commissioners keep certain records ..70 

School commissioners preside over conferences.. 74, 75 

School commissioner districts vary in size C 

School commissioners, salary of 74 

School desks 25, 26 

School-house site 23 

School 1 ibraries ..69 

School-rooms 23-27 

School records 33, 39, 45 

School supplies. 10, 11, 20, 32, 33, 39, 44, 45 

Schools, normal divisions of 31-48 

Schools, relative distribution of 48, 49 

Schools oi)ened from 1880 to 1888 .49 

School terms and vacations 9 

Schools with one department ,.. 31-37 

Schools with 2 departments 38-43 

Schools with 3 classes and 2 teachers. 43-45 

Schools witli 3 classes and 3 teachers 45 

Schools with 4 departments 45, 46 

Schools with 5 departments 46 

Schools with de|iartments 47, 48 

Schools, half -day (IlaWtagnsehnleu) 38, 48 

Scope of report 1,3 

Security of teacher in his position 2 



91 

Pages 

Simultaneous schools 70 

Special certificates 60, 07 

State aid - 12, 13 

State supervision of private schools 3. 8 

Supervising officers G, 73, 74 

Supervision of schools in January, 1889 73, 74 

T. 

Teachers, appointment of 78-80 

Teachers' authority 75. 78 

Teachers, leaves of absence of - ...80. 81 

Teachers, power to appoint vested in government ..78 

Teachers' libraries 20 

Teachers, qualifications of 5,6 

Teachers' wages 11, 12, 49, 53, 63, 07 

Teach i ng a profession 3,11 

Text-books 19, 20. 33, 39, 45 

Time pupils may work outside of .school hours .32 

Time-tables for ungraded schools... 37 

Township system 10. 27 

Trade schools .. _ 13 

Truancy, cases reported 7, 8 

U. 
Universities 6, 12 

V. 

Vacancies occasioned by death of teacher 78 

Va'-ancies arising from olher causes 78, 79 

Vacancies filled by duly authorized teachers 79, 80 

Vacancies filled temporarily through candidates SO 

Vacations 9. 10, 57 

Ventilation 24, 25, 26, 27 

W. 

Wartfschuli'n 28 

Windows 24 



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